CONTENT |
Religion, philosophy, language, literature etc.
Article |
Description and comments |
Authors |
Year |
Rose and nightingale (gol-o-bolbol) |
Literary and decorative metaphor in Persian literature, Sufi poetry, as well as the Bahá'í Faith |
Layla S. Diba |
2001 |
Rose (gol) |
Same as above |
Hušang A'lam |
2001 |
Nightingale (bolbol) |
Same as above |
Hūšang A'lam, Jerome W. Clinton |
1989 |
Beloved (ma'suq) |
Term occuring in Persian literature, Sufism and the Bahá'í Faith, with a variety of meanings. |
J. T. P. de Bruijn |
1989 |
Candle (sam') |
Metaphor |
J. T. P. De Bruijn |
1990 |
Color (rang) |
Color symbolism in Persian literature and art |
Annemarie Schimmel, Priscilla P. Soucek |
1992 |
Simorg (simurgh) |
Mythical bird |
Hanns-Peter Schmidt |
2002 |
Burial |
Burial practices in Zoroastrianism, Islam and the Bahá'í Faith |
Multiple authors (incl. Vahid Rafati) |
2000 |
Cemeteries |
Cemeteries in Persian folklore |
Mahmoud Omidsalar |
1990 |
Camphor (kāfūr) |
Essential oil used in Islamic funerary rituals |
Hūšang A'lam |
1990 |
Calendars |
Various calendars |
Antonio Panaino, Reza Abdollahy, Daniel Balland |
1990 |
Seven (haft) |
Cultural significance of the heptad in Persian history |
A. Shapur Shahbazi |
2002 |
Week (hafta) |
History of the weekly calendar in Iran |
Badri Gharib |
2009 |
Festivals |
Religious and communal festivals and commemorations |
Multiple authors |
1999 |
Nowruz |
Persian New Year |
Mary Boyce, A. Shapur Shahbazi, Simone Cristoforetti |
2000 |
Haft sin |
Seven items beginning with the letter sin (S), a ritual of the Nowruz festival |
A. Shapur Shahbazi |
2002 |
Fasting |
Fasting in Zoroastrianism, Manicheism, Islam and the Bahá'í Faith |
Jamsheed K. Choksy, Denise Soufi |
1999 |
Exegesis |
Commentary on or interpretation of sacred texts |
Multiple authors, incl. Todd Lawson |
1999, 2000 |
Hermeneutics |
The development of Shi'ite exegetical methods over time |
Todd Lawson |
2003 |
Baten (hidden) and zaher (visible) |
Concepts associated with knowledge ('ilm) in Shi'ism and Sufism |
B. Radtke |
1988 |
Baqa (annihilation) and fana (subsistence) |
Exploring the mystical experiences of Sufis |
G. Böwering |
1988 |
Cella (forty day period) |
Term referring to any forty-day period |
Mahmoud Omidsalar, Hamid Algar |
1990 |
Cosmogony and cosmology |
The origin and structure of the universe in various religious traditions. For Shiism this includes elements like the divine throne and the pen. |
Multiple authors, incl. Moojan Momen |
1993 |
Conversion |
Aspects of religious conversion in Iranian history |
Multiple authors |
1993 |
Taqiya (dissimulation) |
Concealing one's true beliefs in times of imminent danger |
Louis Medoff, Kamran Ekbal |
2015, 2012 |
Islam in Iran |
The advent and spread of Islam in Iran, messianism and millenarianism, jihad, and Islamic political movements |
Multiple authors |
2007 |
Hadith |
Introducing Hadith literature, consisting of reports on the Prophet Muhammad's actions and sayings. |
Shahab Ahmed |
2002 |
Shiite doctrine |
Focusing on the Imams and a dualistic view. |
Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi |
2005 |
Hierarchy in the Imamiyya |
Hierarchy involving believers, ulema (religious scholars), and internal ranking systems |
Rainer Brunner |
2010 |
Imamite-Sunnite relations |
Relations in the 19th and 20th centuries |
Rainer Brunner |
2010 |
Imams in Twelver Shi'i Islam |
Articles about each of the twelve Imams |
Multiple authors |
1985-2015 |
Imam Husayn |
Third Imam |
Wilferd Madelung, Jean Calmard, Peter Chelkowski |
2004 |
Mahdi |
Descendant of the Prophet Muhammad who is expected to return |
Said Amir Arjomand, Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi, Verena Klemm) |
2007 |
Gayba |
Occultation of the Hidden Imam |
Said Amir Arjomand |
2000 |
Raj'a (return) |
Spiritual and eschatological interpretations in Shi'i Islam |
Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi |
2005 |
Eschatology |
Final events of history, or the ultimate destiny of humanity. In Zoroastrianism, Manicheism, Shi'i Islam, Bábí and Bahá'í Faits |
Shaul Shaked, Werner Sundermann, Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi, Stephen Lambden |
1998 |
Apocalyptic |
The development of End Time prophecies in Zoroastrianism, Judaism and Islam |
Mary Boyce, I. K. Poonawala |
1986 |
Dajjal |
Evil figure in Islamic prophecies, who will pretend to be the promised Messiah, appearing before the Day of Judgment |
Hamid Algar |
1993 |
Ismailism |
Prominent Shi'ite Muslim community |
Multiple authors |
2007 |
Ijtihad (ejtehad) |
Islamic legal term referring to independent reasoning by an expert in Islamic law |
Aron Zysow |
1998 |
Jurisprudence (fiqh) |
Expressing God's law (sharī'a) through exposition, analysis, and argument |
Norman Calder |
1999 |
Akbariya |
School in Shi'ism, emphasizing Imams' traditions as the main source of religious knowledge |
E. Kohlberg |
1984 |
Shaykhism |
School of Twelver Shi'ism founded in the 19th century by Shaykh Aḥmad Aḥsā'i |
Denis Hermann |
2017 |
Fatima |
Daughter of the Prophet Moḥammad |
Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi, Jean Calmard |
1999 |
Angels (fereshteh) |
Angels in Islam and Persian folklore. In supplement (not online?) |
|
1999 |
Bada |
Theological term referring to a divine change in decision or ruling based on new circumstance |
Wilferd Madelung |
1988 |
Cleansing |
Cleansing practices in Islamic Persia |
Hamid Algar |
1992 |
Dhikr (dekr) |
The remembrance of God through reciting His name, in Sufism and the Bábí and Bahá'í Faiths |
Gerhard Böwering, Moojan Momen |
1994 |
Dua (Doa; prayer) |
Islamic prayer of invocation, supplication or request |
Hamid Algar |
1995 |
Halal (permissible) and haram (prohibited) |
Islamic term for "permissible" and "forbidden" things |
Dana al-Sajdi |
2003 |
Iblis (Eblis) |
Devil-ike figure in Islam; the symbolic and moral dimensions of Iblīs in Sufism |
Hamid Algar |
1996 |
Hell (duzak; jahannam) |
Hell in Zoroastrianism and Islam |
Philippe Gignoux, Mahmoud Omidsalar |
2003, 2000 |
Jinn (genie) |
Supernatural beings from Islamic tradition, folklore beliefs in Persian tradition |
Mahmoud Omidsalar |
2000 |
Kidr (Khidr, Kezr) |
A prophet in Islamic tradition, influenced by diverse myths |
Anna Krasnowolska |
2009 |
Mi'raj (me'raj) |
The Prophet Muhammad's heavenly ascent, often associated with the night journey (isrā') |
Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi |
2010 |
Sheba (Saba), Queen of (Belqis) |
Prominent figure in Persian and Arabic literature, known for her encounters with King Solomon (Solayman) |
Golām-Ḥosayn Yūsofī |
1989 |
Christianity |
Various aspects of Christianity in Persia, includingChristian Influences in Persian Poetry |
Multiple authors, incl. Annemarie Schimmel |
1991 |
Bible |
Persian translations of the Bible |
Multiple authors |
1989 |
Daniel (Dānīāl-e Nabī) |
Biblical prophet, highlights prophetic elements and diverse traditions |
Multiple authors |
1993 |
Isaiah, Book of |
Book of the Bible, containing prophecies |
Shaul Shaked |
2006 |
Joseph (Yusuf) |
Joseph in Persian literature, Qur'anic exegesis, and Persian art |
Asghar Dadbeh, Annabel Keeler, Chad Kia |
2009 |
Gnosticism |
Gnosticism had various forms in pre-Islamic Iran, blending influences from different religious traditions |
Kurt Rudolph |
2001 |
Dead Sea scrolls |
Collection of manuscripts discovered at the Qumran Caves, in which a number of Iranian elements can be discerned |
Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin) |
1994 |
Judeo-Persian communities |
Starting with the Babylonian exile until the present day; language, literature and music contributions, and Persian impact on Judaism |
Multiple authors |
2009 |
Persian elements in the Talmud |
Persian influences on Judaism through the Babylonian Talmud |
Jacob Neusner |
2005 |
Talmud (continued) |
The impact of Middle Persian culture on Babylonian rabbinic Judaism |
Yaakov Elman |
2010 |
Zoroaster |
Prophet of ancient Iran, whose religion became the dominant faith in Iran until the rise of Islam |
Multiple authors |
2000 |
Ahura Mazda |
The one uncreated God in Zoroastrianism |
Mary Boyce |
1984 |
Dualism |
Dualism in Zoroastrianism, and its influence on Judaism, early Christianity, Gnosticism, and Manicheism |
Gherardo Gnoli |
1996 |
Farrah (glory) |
Term translating to "glory" in Iranian languages, linked to concepts like peace, and happiness; present in Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Manicheism |
Gherardo Gnoli |
1999 |
Fire (ātaš) |
Concept in Zoroastrianism |
Mary Boyce |
1987 |
Water (Āb) |
Concept in Zoroastrianism |
Mary Boyce |
1982 |
Saosyant |
Saviour figure in Zoroastrian |
William Malandra |
2000 |
Hataria Manekji Limji |
Parsi from India who served the Zoroastrian community in Iran from 1854 to 1890; Bahá'u'lláh sent several replies to his questions |
Firoze M. Kotwal, Jamsheed K. Choksy, Christopher J. Brunner, and Mahnaz Moazami |
2016 |
Pre-Islamic religions in Iran |
Indo-Iranian practices and Zoroastrianism |
Philip G. Kreyenbroek |
2006 |
Indo-Iranian religion |
Commonalities between ancient Iran and India |
Gherardo Gnoli |
2004 |
Magi |
Priests of western Iranians during various historical periods |
Muhammad A. Dandamayev |
2000 |
Mandaeans |
Ethno-religious group, followers of Mandaeism, a Gnostic and monotheistic religion with Greek, Iranian, and Jewish influences |
Edmondo F. Lupieri |
2008 |
Manicheism |
Persian religion (former world religion) founded by the prophet Mani in the 3rd century CE |
Werner Sundermann |
2009 |
Mithraism |
Roman mystery religion centered on the god Mithras |
Roger Beck |
2002 |
Hermes |
Greek god; article explores Hermes' influence in the Roman, Egyptian, and Iranian worlds |
Albert de Jong |
2003 |
Nosayris |
Syncretistic sect close to Shi'ism, forming Syria's largest minority |
Meir M. Bar-Asher |
2003 |
Sacred Books of the East |
Collection of 50 volumes translated into English between 1879 and 1910 by leading scholars supervised by Friederich Max Müller |
Carlo G. Cereti |
2000 |
Alchemy (kimia) |
The origins of alchemy, Persian influence and Islamic development; alchemy's mysticism, medical applications, and lasting impact on Western science |
Pierre Lory |
2008 |
Philosophy (falsafa) |
Mazdean philosophy blends Greek thought (mainly Peripatetic and Neo-Platonic) with Zoroastrianism, covering topics like Being, Time, Space, Movement, Nature, Man, the Prime Cause, influenced by diverse philosophical traditions |
Mansour Shaki |
1999 |
Aql |
The term " 'aql" denotes intellect, crucial in Islamic philosophy, Sufism and literature |
F. Rahman, W. C. Chittick |
1986 |
Perfect Human Being (Insan-i-kamil) |
Concept central in Islamic mysticism, originating with Ibn Arabi (1165 – 1240), embodying oneness with God, moral perfection, and cosmic significance. It evolved from diverse influences |
Gerhard Böwering |
1998 |
Irfan |
Islamic theosophy, merging Sufi thought and Shi'ite philosophy, |
Gerhard Böwering |
1998 |
Evil |
The concept of evil in Zoroastrianism and Shi'ism |
Gherardo Gnoli, Etan Kohlberg |
1998 |
Fatalism |
Fatalism in Islamic philosophy and Persian literature, where destiny, predetermined by God, shapes human existence |
'Abd-al-Ḥosayn Zarrīnkūb |
1999 |
Free will |
Free will in Shi'ism |
Multiple authors |
2000 |
Farabi (c. 870 – 950) |
Islamic philosopher and music theorist, who lived in Baghdad, Egypt and Damascus |
Multiple authors |
1999 |
Avicenna (c. 980 - 1037) |
Persian polymath, physician and philosopher, who died in Hamadan |
Multiple authors |
1987 |
Illuminationism (falsafa-i-ishraqi) |
Philosophical system introduced by Persian philosopher Sohravardi (Suhrawardi; 1155 - 1191) |
Hossein Ziai |
2004 |
Isfahan school of philosophy |
Philosophical movement, emphasizing metaphysical speculation and mystical experience. Key figures include Shaikh Bahai (1547 - 1621), Mir Damad (c. 1561 - 1631) and Mulla Sadra (c. 1571 - 1640) |
Sajjad H. Rizvi |
2007 |
Mulla Sadra (c. 1571 - 1640) |
Persian philosopher and theologian, who lived in Shiraz, Qazvin, Isfahan, Qum, Basra and Najaf |
Sajjad H. Rizvi |
2005 |
Hegel (1770 - 1831) |
German philosopher, who wrote about Zoroastrian thought and Islamic Persian art |
M. Azadpour |
2003 |
Nietzsche (1844 - 1900) |
German philosopher, who admired Persian culture |
Daryoush Ashouri |
2003 |
Conspiracy theories |
Conspiracy theories in Persia |
Ahmad Ashraf |
1992 |
Forgeries |
Historical forgeries, including genealogies, documents, calligraphy, and painting |
Multiple authors |
1999 |
Aryans |
Ancient peoples of India and Iran who spoke Aryan languages |
R. Schmitt |
1987 |
Persian language |
Early New Persian's emergence, dialects, and historical context, shaping literature, administration, and scholarship across Islamic civilization |
Ludwig Paul |
2000 |
Arabic language |
Arabic influence on Persian, including loanwords and literary impact |
Multiple authors |
1986 |
Abjad |
Term referring to the use of letters as numbers; originally used for numbering, it later found applications in religion, poetry, magic and numerology |
G. Krotkoff |
1982 |
Chronograms |
Chronograms hide dates in Persian texts using letter values; they are solved through various methods |
J. T. P. de Bruijn |
1991 |
Codes (romuz) |
Persian cryptography; codes served diplomatic, religious, and magical purposes |
C. Edmund Bosworth |
1992 |
Aramaic language |
Overview of Aramaic language, covering its historical development, dialects, and influence on Iranian languages |
F. Rosenthal, J. C. Greenfield, S. Shaked |
1986 |
Syriac language |
An ancient Aramaic dialect, was vital in Christian literature and translating Greek works, influencing Islamic and Western civilizations |
Multiple authors |
2015 |
Urdu language |
Urdu, a major language in Pakistan and India, influenced by Persian, serves as a lingua franca for the Indian subcontinent. Its literature heavily borrows from Persian. |
David Matthews |
2005 |
Loanwords |
Linguistic loanwords across languages, including Arabic, Persian, Greek, Mongolian, Ossetic, Sogdian, Syriac, and Turkic |
Multiple authors |
Multiple years |
Persian literature |
Three main periods of Persian literature: Pre-Islamic, Classical, and Modern |
Multiple authors |
1999, 2006 |
Persian myths and legends |
Myths and legends in Iranian culture; their role in conveying fundamental truths and shaping religious beliefs |
John R. Hinnells |
2004 |
Epics |
Epics in Persian literature; explores various heroic epics and their characters, including Rostam and Bahman; the national epic Shahnameh (shah-nama), as well as romantic epics like Nizami's works |
François de Blois |
1998 |
Fables |
Persian fables, short stories often involving animals, gods, or inanimate objects, used to illustrate moral or ethical teachings; the adaptation of fables from various cultures into Persian storytelling traditions |
Mahmoud and Teresa P. Omidsalar |
1999 |
Fiction |
Traditional and modern fiction, including novels, short stories, and works from various regions |
Multiple authors |
2000 |
Gazal |
A form of Persian lyric poetry, which has influenced Turkish and Urdu poetry |
J. T. P. de Bruijn, Ehsan Yarshater |
2000, 2006 |
Rhetorical figures |
Rhetorical figures in medieval Persian literature; the influence of Persian and Arabic traditions on each other's poetic styles |
Natalia Chalisova |
2009 |
Metrical system (aruz) |
Metrical system used in Arabic poetry; influenced Persian poetry |
L. P. Elwell-Sutton |
1986 |
Hagiographic literature |
Hagiographic literature in Persia and Central Asia focuses on Sufi saints, emphasizing spiritual teachings and symbolic meanings over factual details |
Jürgen Paul |
2002 |
Omar Khayyam (1048 - 1131) |
Persian polymath and poet from Nishapur |
Multiple authors |
2017 |
Sanai (1080 - 1131/1141) |
Persian poet from Ghazni |
J. T. P. de Bruijn |
2012 |
Leyli and Majnun (Layli and Majnun) |
A narrative poem by Nizami (1141 - 1209), composed in 1188 |
A. A. Seyed-Gohrab |
2009 |
Attar (c. 1145 - 1221) |
Persian poet and Sufi from Nishapur. Note: Bahá'u'lláh's "Seven Valleys" follows the structure of the Persian poem "The Conference of the Birds", with some variations |
B. Reinert |
1987 |
Rumi (1207 – 1273) |
Sufi poet who died in Konya (present-day Turkey) |
Multiple authors, incl. William C. Chittick |
2014 |
Sadi (Saadi; 1210 – c. 1291) |
Persian poet from Shiraz |
Paul Losensky |
2000 |
Hafez (1315 - 1390) |
Persian poet and mystic from Shiraz |
Multiple authors, incl. Franklin Lewis |
2002 |
Goethe (1749-1832) |
German poet, inspired by Sadi |
Hamid Tafazoli |
2001 |
Calligraphy |
History of Persian calligraphy |
Golām-Ḥosayn Yūsofī |
1990 |
Paper |
Paper, invented in China, spread to Iran and throughout Asia before the Islamic period. Its usage in the Iranian world before printing and its papermaking process are discussed. |
Jonathan Bloom, Willem Floor |
2005, 2017 |
Cut paper |
Ornamental technique found in Persian manuscripts and bookbindings from the late 15th to the mid-17th centuries |
Barbara Schmitz |
1993 |
Pen (qalam) |
Reed pen used in calligraphy; also bird quills are discussed |
Sina Goudarzi, Bahram Grami |
2016 |
Bookbinding 1 |
Bookbinding in Iran evolved with Persian designs, including blind tooling and Timurid innovations like sophisticated stamping and cutwork |
Duncan Haldane |
1989 |
Bookbinding 2 |
Bookbinding involves crafting covers for new books or repairing old ones. Persian bookbinders worked with leather, cloth, and various ornamentation techniques. |
Iraj Afshar |
2005 |
Lithography 1 |
Lithography in Persia began in 1821, expanding rapidly with private presses, contributing to diverse book production until the early 20th century |
Olimpiada P. Shcheglova |
2009 |
Lithography 2 |
In 19th-20th century India, lithography boomed, especially in Lucknow and Bombay, printing diverse Persian books. Educational and theological texts dominated production. |
Olimpiada P. Shcheglova |
2009 |
Evil eye (casm zakm) |
Historical roots of the concept of the evil eye in various cultures, and preventive measures against harm |
Ebrāhīm Šakūrzāda, Mahmoud Omidsalar |
1990 |
Charms |
Cultural and historical aspects of charms in Persian traditions |
Mahmoud Omidsalar |
1991 |
Dreams |
In Persian tradition dreams shape destinies, holding cultural significance, and inspiring believers in Shi'ism. |
Hossein Ziai |
1995 |
Magic |
Magic in literature and folklore during the Islamic period; challenges of defining magic and its connection to science and religion; the distinction between high magic, rooted in philosophical traditions, and folk magic, transmitted orally |
Mahmud Omidsalar |
2005 |
Astrology and astronomy |
The development of astronomy and astrology in Iran, highlighting influences from Hellenistic, Indian, and Persian traditions |
D. Pingree, C. J. Brunner |
1987 |
Planets |
Historical understanding and influence of planets |
Antonio Panaino |
2016 |
Zodiac |
The historical development of the Zodiac, its association with astronomy, astrology, and its impact on Iranian calendars and cosmology |
Antonio Panaino |
2009 |
Henry Corbin (1903 - 1978) |
French philosopher and orientalist, interpreter of the Persian role in the development of Islamic thought |
Daryush Shayegan |
1993 |
Aleksandr Tumanski (Alexander Tumansky) (1861 - 1920) |
Russian orientalist who translated Persian literature and Bahá'í works, notably Bahá'u'lláh's Kitáb-i-Aqdas (1899) |
Jahangir Dorri |
2009 |
Iran, Persian culture etc.
Article |
Description and comments |
Authors |
Year |
Iran |
Geography, history, culture, people, languages, religions, art, music. |
Multiple authors |
2004 |
Iranian history: Chronological table |
Timeline, including index of proper names |
Ehsan Yarshater |
2004 |
Historiography |
Historiography of Iran, spanning from pre-Islamic to the 20th century, examining narrative evolution and Western influences |
Multiple authors, incl. Abbas Amanat and Sholeh Quinn |
2003 |
Archeology |
Archaeological research methods and findings across various historical periods in Iran and Central Asia |
Multiple authors |
1986 |
Boundaries |
Boundaries of Iran with the Ottoman Empire, Russia, Afghanistan, Iraq, and Turkey. |
Multiple authors |
1989 |
Isfahan |
Isfahan, a historic city in central Iran, geography, history, population, monuments, and cultural aspects |
Multiple authors |
2006 |
Shiraz |
History of the city of Shiraz until 1940 |
A. Shapur Shahbazi |
2004 |
Tabriz |
Iranian city, article discusses the 19th century |
James D. Clark |
2014 |
Tehran |
Capital city of Iran |
Xavier de Planhol |
2004 |
Ctesiphon |
Overview of the ancient city of Ctesiphon, situated on the Tigris near modern Baghdad |
Jens Kröger |
1993 |
Persepolis |
Renowned archaeological site northeast of Shiraz, Iran; a center of power and culture, built by Achaemenid Persian kings |
A. Shapur Shahbazi |
2009 |
Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C.) |
Alexander the Great conquered Persia, seizing key cities and defeating Darius III, reshaping the region. See also Eskander-nama (Alexander Romance). |
P. Briant |
1985 |
Kariz |
Underground irrigation canals; their significance in agriculture and water management |
Xavier de Planhol |
2011 |
Ziggurat |
Terraced temple-towers in Mesopotamia |
Michael Herles |
2000 |
Architecture |
Chronological overview of Iranian architecture |
Multiple authors |
1986 |
Art |
History of Persian art and architecture |
Multiple authors |
1986 |
Iranian identity |
Iranian identity as a collective feeling of belonging to the historic lands of Iran, shaped by common historical experiences, cultural traditions, and mythologies shared among Iranian peoples |
Multiple authors |
2000 |
Human migration |
Three types of human migration related to Iran: internal migration, immigration, and emigration |
Mehdi Aman, Habibollah Zanjani |
2004 |
Diaspora |
Iranian diaspora across history and regions, including India, Southeast Asia, Ottoman Turkey, Iraq, and worldwide |
Multiple authors |
1995 |
Education |
Education in Iranian-speaking regions, spanning ancient to modern times, covering traditional schools, modern education systems, and women's education |
Multiple authors |
1997 |
Health |
Health in Iran across historical periods: Pre-Islamic, Medieval, Qajar, and Pahlavi eras |
Multiple authors |
2003 |
Women in Shi'ism |
Shi'ite ideology theoretically favors women, but societal norms often limit their rights. Modern debates engage Shi'ite thought, feminism, and societal shifts |
Moojan Momen |
2001 |
Cador |
Traditional female garment in Iran, tracing back to pre-Islamic times |
Bijan Gheiby, James R. Russell, Hamid Algar |
1990 |
Gender relations |
Gender relations in modern Persia; complex dynamics shaped by tradition, religion, and modernization |
Farzaneh Milani |
2000 |
Feminist movements |
Persian feminist movements, spanning the late 19th to 20th century, addressing education, employment, suffrage, and family laws |
Encyclopaedia Iranica, Janet Afary |
1999 |
Class system in the Qajar period |
The text outlines class systems across Persian history, including the Avesta, Achaemenid, Parthian, Sasanian, medieval Islamic, Qajar, and Pahlavi periods |
Multiple authors |
1991 |
Personal names |
Iranian personal names, including Avestan, Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sasanian |
Rüdiger Schmitt |
2005 |
Khanum (title) |
General title of respect for women; formerly a title for elite women |
C. Edmund Bosworth |
2010 |
Khan (title) |
Historical and social contexts of the title "Khan," from its significance in Mongol and Safavid eras to its modern usage in Central Asia and India |
Gene R. Garthwaite |
2017 |
Household in the Qajar period |
The Qajar household was patriarchal, with gender-segregated areas (biruni and andaruni). Women managed traditions, servants handled daily tasks, while men supervised and entertained guests. |
Shireen Mahdavi |
2009 |
Carpets |
Persian carpets; materials, techniques, designs, regional variations, historical periods, Islamic Persia's influence |
Multiple authors |
1990 |
Decoration |
The significance of decoration in Islamic Persian art and architecture, its evolution over different historical periods, and its integration of diverse influences |
Priscilla P. Soucek |
1994 |
Etiquette |
Evolution of Persian etiquette, rooted in Sasanian customs, shaped by Islamic dynasties, blending tradition with Islamic principles and Western influence |
Multiple authors |
1998 |
Ta'arof |
Ta'arof encompasses linguistic deference and social gestures, emphasizing status differentials and hospitality, serving as a social lubricant with strategic implications |
William Beeman |
2017 |
Gift giving |
An overview of gift giving in Persia, from pre-Islamic to early modern times |
Multiple authors |
2016 |
Humor |
Humor in Persian culture, from classical to modern times, covering its diverse forms, social functions, and evolution under various influences |
J. T. P. de Bruijn |
2004 |
Mulla Nasreddin |
A beloved figure in Persian and Middle Eastern folklore, is known for his wit and humor, often imparting lessons through his tales |
Hasan Javadi |
2009 |
Clothing |
Overview of clothing in various periods and regions of Iran and neighboring areas, covering historical, cultural, and ethnic aspects |
Multiple authors |
1992 |
Turban ('amama) |
The cultural significance and historical evolution of the turban in Islamic societies, its symbolism and variations |
H. Algar |
1989 |
Pearl (marjan) |
Pearls symbolized beauty, purity, and perfection, in historical texts and jewelry; diving techniques, pearling vessels, and seasonal activities |
Brigitte Musche, Daniel T. Potts |
2008 |
Silk (abrisam) |
Etymology, trade, production, utilization in Iranian crafts and textiles |
W. Eilers, M. Bazin and C. Bromberger, D. Thompson |
1983 |
Rose water (golab) |
Rose water from Persian roses, is used in cuisine, medicine, and religious rituals |
Hušang A'lam |
2001 |
Perfume ('atr) |
Ancient origins and diverse extraction methods |
F. Aubaile-Sallenave |
1987 |
Soap (sabun) |
Soap production in Persia dates back to antiquity; modernization in the Qajar era led to industry growth |
Willem Floor |
2005 |
Cosmetics |
Cosmetics in Persian tradition were used for beautification, especially for brides. Rituals included hair removal, henna, eyebrow dyeing, and applying kohl and rouge for weddings. |
Multiple authors |
1993 |
Henna |
Origin, medical and cosmetic uses, cultural significance in wedding ceremonies, and historical practices across regions |
Hušang 'Alam |
2003 |
Bathhouses |
Historical, architectural, and social aspects of bathhouses in Iran, including their pre-Islamic origins, layout, staff, and cultural significance |
W. Floor, W. Kleiss |
1988 |
Coffeehouses (qahva kana) |
The history of Persian coffeehouses, from centers of culture to decline due to social change and modernization |
'Alī Āl-e Dawūd |
1992 |
Bazar |
The origin of "bazar" as "market," its functions, organization, and socio-economic roles |
Multiple authors |
1989 |
Caravan |
Organized collective transports of people and goods, primarily using camels, for trade and pilgrimage; usage declined with the rise of modern transportation |
Bert G. Fragner |
1990 |
Caravansary |
A caravansary, crucial for travelers, provided lodging along trade and pilgrimage routes. They varied in design and function, from fortified stops to luxurious inns, reflecting historical, architectural, and regional influences |
Moḥammad-Yūsuf Kīānī, Wolfram Kleiss |
1990 |
Garden (bag) - 1 |
Gardens, for pleasure, with ornamental layouts and architectural elements, influenced literature and art, notably in Persian culture and its impact on Indian gardens |
Multiple authors |
2000 |
Garden (bag) - 2 |
Etymology, general characteristics, and its role in Persian literature, symbolizing beauty, tranquility, and abundance |
Multiple authors |
1988 |
Desert |
Overview of Iranian deserts, their characteristics, historical significance, human impact, and cultural perceptions |
Brian Spooner |
1994 |
Nomadism |
Seasonal livestock herding by ethnic groups in Iran, sustaining livelihoods through traditional migration patterns |
Eckart Ehlers |
2011 |
Castles |
Development of Iranian castles, architectural evolution, defensive strategies, and influences from various civilizations |
Wolfram Kleiss |
1990 |
Palace architecture |
Iranian palace architecture, functional aspects, layout, and cultural continuity across historical periods, from Achaemenid to Safavid times |
Dietrich Huff |
2008 |
Courts and courtiers |
Iranian court systems from ancient to modern times, including cultural elements like court poetry |
Multiple authors |
1993 |
Scribe (dabir) |
The role of dabirs, secretaries and scribes, in pre-Islamic and Islamic periods, their functions and privileges |
Aḥmad Tafazzoli, Hashem Rajabzadeh |
1993 |
Harem |
Housed wives and female associates in aristocratic families and royal quarters |
Multiple authors |
2003 |
Falcon (baz) |
Bird of prey, which held cultural significance |
Hūšang A'lam |
1989 |
Falconry (bazdari) |
Prestigious art and sport in Iran, flourishing in pre-Islamic and Islamic eras among rulers and aristocrats |
Hūšang A'lam |
1989 |
Banners ('alam, derafs) |
Banners guided troops amidst dust; their colors and emblems symbolized identity and authority, evolving from early to late medieval periods |
A. S. Melikian-Chirvani |
1988 |
Begging |
Begging in early Islam, Sufism, and in later Iran |
Multiple authors |
1989 |
Darvis |
The term "darvis" evolved from pre-Islamic asceticism to Islamic Sufism, signifying spiritual poverty and detachment, often involving mendicancy |
Mansour Shaki, Hamid Algar) |
1994 |
Games (bazi) |
Games for small children; games for older children and adults; ceremonial games; theatrical games; games of intelligence |
Fereydūn Vahman |
1989 |
Farman |
Decrees issued by rulers, their structure, typology, historical development, seals, and writing materials used |
Bert G. Fragner |
1999 |
Fatwa |
Rulings on Islamic jurisprudence |
Hamid Algar |
1999 |
Weights and measures |
Ancient Near Eastern standards for weight, capacity, and length; their evolution through pre-Islamic periods |
A. D. H. Bivar |
2000 |
Communication |
Historical development of communication infrastructure in Persia, covering postal service, telegraph, telephone, press, radio, and television |
Annabelle Sreberny-Mohammadi and 'Alī Mohammadi |
1992 |
Telegraph |
Mirza Malkom Khan introduced telegraph to Persia in 1858, expanding to Tabriz by 1860, enabling swift communication within the country and beyond |
Soli Shahvar |
2009 |
Railroads |
The first railway in Iran, built by a Belgian company, linked Tehran to Shah 'Abd-al-'Azim in 1888. Despite challenges like difficult terrain and local superstitions, it operated until 1962. |
Soli Shahvar |
2008 |
Lighting and heating |
Iran's historical lighting sources, transitioning from oils and candles to kerosene and gas |
Willem Floor |
2005 |
Edward Gibbon (1737 - 1794) |
Gibbon's "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" explores Persia's relations with Byzantium, including military and diplomatic interactions. His conclusions remain relevant. |
Michael Rogers |
2001 |
Relations with other regions and countries
Article |
Description and comments |
Authors |
Year |
Ottoman Persian relations - 1 |
Relations during the reigns of Sultan Selim I and Shah Esma'il I |
Osman G. Özgüdenli |
2006 |
Ottoman Persian relations - 2 |
Relations during the Afsharid and Zand periods |
Ernest Tucker |
2005 |
Persian manuscripts - Ottoman |
The rich collection of Persian manuscripts in Ottoman and Turkish libraries, detailing their origins, acquisition, and cultural influence |
Osman G. Özgüdenli |
2005 |
Topkapi Palace |
The residence of the Ottoman sultans in Istanbul (Constantinople), Turkey; Persian artifacts, including diplomatic gifts, manuscripts, Qur'ans, weaponry, and textiles, showcasing centuries of cultural exchange |
Zeren Tanındı |
2008 |
Turkic contacts |
Linguistic interactions between Iranian and Turkic languages, detailing influences, borrowing, and sociocultural impacts throughout history |
John R. Perry |
2006 |
Iraq |
Iraq's historical relationship with Iran, spanning from ancient eras to modern times, including cultural, political, and societal dimensions |
Multiple authors |
2000 |
Karbala |
Sacred Shiite city in Iraq |
Meir Litvak |
2010 |
Atabat |
Sacred Shiite shrine cities in Iraq, including Najaf, Karbala, Kazemayn, and Samarra, housing the tombs of important Imams. They hold significance in pilgrimage, scholarship, and religious authority within Shiism. |
H. Algar |
1987 |
Euphrates |
River in Iraq |
Samuel N. C. Lieu |
1998 |
Tigris |
River in Iraq |
Daniel T. Potts |
2006 |
Israel |
Diplomatic ties, the Jewish Persian community, Iranian studies, and Persian art collections |
Multiple authors |
2007 |
Ishqabad (Ashkhabad) |
Capital city of Turkmenistan since 1924 |
B. Spuler |
1987 |
Persian image of Europe |
Persian views of Europe evolved from stereotypes to nuanced understanding. Later, admiration for Western progress spurred reform efforts in Persia. |
Rudi Matthee |
1998 |
Asia Minor |
Historical influence of Iranians in Anatolia |
M. Weiskopf |
1987 |
Central Asia |
Geography, history, economy, language, literature, music, and relations with Persia |
Multiple authors |
1990 |
Southeast Asia - 1 |
Persian cultural influences in Southeast Asia, including language, trade, and religious practices, historical ties and linguistic borrowings |
M. Ismail Marcinkowski |
2004 |
Southeast Asia - 2 |
Southeast Asia's Islamization; Shi'ite influences alongside Sunni traditions |
M. Ismail Marcinkowski |
2004 |
East India Company (British) |
The British East India Company, formed in 1600, aimed to export English woolen cloths and import goods from the East Indies |
R. W. Ferrier, John R. Perry |
1996 |
East India Company (French) |
The French East India |
Anne Kroell |
1996 |
Afghanistan |
Geography, flora, fauna, languages, history, literature, and diverse cultures |
Multiple authors |
1983 |
Arab |
Arab-Iranian interactions from pre-Islamic times to modern times |
Multiple authors |
1986 |
Arabia |
Arabia's significance during the Achaemenid and Sasanian periods |
Multiple authors |
2000 |
Shiites in Arabia |
Shi'ite presence in Arabian regions like Ḥejāaz, Bahrain, Yemen, and other Gulf States; historical context, challenges, and contemporary developments |
Werner Ende |
2004 |
Armenia - 1 |
Armenia's history, pre-Islamic era, religion, Iranian linguistic influences, Armenian accounts of Iran, and Armeno-Iranian relations post-Islam |
Multiple authors |
1986 |
Armenia - 2 |
The image of Persia in Armenia |
Robert Thomson |
2002 |
Armenia - 3 (women) |
Armenian women in Persia during the late 19th and early 20th centuries |
Houri Berberian |
2009 |
Austria - 1 |
Austrian-Persian relations; alliances, arms trade, and diplomatic negotiations, commerce, and cultural exchanges |
Helmut Slaby |
2005 |
Austria - 2 |
Austrian Iranian Studies |
X. Tremblay and N. Rastegar |
2005 |
Azerbaijan |
Azerbaijan's historical complexities, from its Achaemenid origins to the Soviet annexation, covering territorial shifts, linguistic changes, and geopolitical dynamics |
Multiple authors |
1987 |
Bahrain |
Bahrain's geography, Shi'ite population, and historical relations with Iran |
X. De Planhol, J.A. Kechichian |
1988 |
Belgium |
Diplomatic relations between Belgium and Iran, focusing on the period from the late 19th century to the eve of World War II: Technical assistance to Iran in areas like customs, postal service, treasury, cadastral survey sanitation, administrative reforms |
Annette Destrée |
1989 |
China |
Chinese-Iranian relations from pre-Islamic to modern times; including trade, diplomatic ties, cultural exchanges, Persian settlements, language teaching, and artistic influences |
Multiple authors |
1991 |
Denmark |
Danish-Persian relations; political diplomacy, economic ties, Iranian studies in Denmark, archaeology, language |
Fereydun Vahman, Jes P. Asmussen) |
1994 |
France |
France's historical and contemporary relations with Persia; diplomatic, cultural, educational, and linguistic exchanges, archaeological missions, the Persian community in France |
Multiple authors |
2000 |
Germany |
German-Iranian relations; diplomacy, archaeology, Iranian studies, travel, art, literature, cultural influence, expatriates, and immigrant communities |
Multiple authors |
2000 |
Great Britain |
British influence in Persia from the Safavid era to the present, covering diplomatic relations, cultural exchanges, archaeological excavations, Iranian studies, art collections, and the Persian community in Britain |
Multiple authors |
2000 |
Greece |
The relationship between Greece and the Persian Empire, covering political and cultural interactions, influences on philosophy, literature, art, architecture, medicine, language, and scientific exchange between the two civilizations |
Multiple authors |
2002 |
Hellenism |
Greek culture's adoption in the 2nd century BCE, fostering mutual cultural enrichment with Eastern civilizations |
Laurianne Martinez-Sève) |
2003 |
Hungary |
|
|
|
India |
India's relations with Iran, spanning historical, political, cultural, commercial, literary, artistic, and societal aspects across various periods and influences |
Multiple authors |
2004 |
Bombay, Persian communities of |
Zoroastrian and Persian Muslim communities in Mumbai (Bombay), India |
John R. Hinnells, Momin Mohiuddin and Ismail K. Poonawala |
1989 |
Parsi communities - 1 |
History of the Zoroastrian community in India, starting from around the 8th to 10th centuries |
John R. Hinnells |
2008 |
Parsi communities - 2 |
The Parsi community of Kolkata (Calcutta) |
Jesse S. Palsetia |
2006 |
Italy |
Italy's relations with Iran; diplomacy, trade, cultural exchange, travel accounts, Iranian studies, manuscripts, art collections, and academic centers |
Multiple authors |
2007 |
Japan |
Japan and Iran share diplomatic, commercial, and cultural ties, including travel, archeological missions, academic studies, book collections, art, and literary translations |
Multiple authors |
2008 |
Lebanon |
Shi'ites in Lebanon,the largest religious group in Lebanon |
Sabrina Mervin) |
2005 |
Netherlands - 1 |
Dutch-Persian relations, trade, linguistic studies, limited documentation, and Persians' presence in the Netherlands |
Willem Floor |
1996 |
Netherlands - 2 |
Dutch archives on Iran and Dutch-Persian relations, covering V.O.C. documents, consular records, private papers, and post-1800 materials |
Willem Floor |
2000 |
Poland |
Iranian Studies in Poland |
Anna Krasnowolska |
2000 |
Portugal |
Portuguese-Persian relations in the early Modern Age (1500-1750) |
Joao Teles e Cunha |
2009 |
Romania |
Romanian-Iranian relations; economic, political contacts, Queen Marie, cultural interest in Persian literature, reflected in translations and collections. There is a separate article about Queen Marie>. |
Keith Hitchins, Della L. Marcus |
2014, 2015 |
Russia |
Russo-Iranian relations |
Multiple authors |
2000 |
Spain |
Spanish relations with Persia in the 16th and 17th centuries |
José Cutillas Ferrer |
2018 |
Sweden |
Swedish relations with Persia |
Multiple authors |
2000 |
Tajikistan |
Tajikistan's Islamic history since 1917 reflects Soviet suppression, impacting education, religious practices; post-Soviet political and religious developments |
Muriel Atkin |
2005 |
Thailand |
Iran's historical ties with Thailand; Persian merchants influenced trade, culture, and diplomacy, shaping Siamese society |
M. Ismail Marcinkowski |
2002 |
|