Preface
A Resource Guide for the Scholarly Study of the Bahá'í
Faith is edition seven of what was previously titled A Curriculum Guide
for the Bahá'í Faith. Editions one through five consisted
primarily of the Curriculum Guides section (section one in current edition)
with a limited annotated bibliography and only one appendix. In editions six
and seven the scholarly bibliography and its annotations grew in size and the
appendices in number, such that the Guide became far more than simply
one for curricula. Its new title reflects its broader content.
The purpose of the Resource Guide is to provide information about how to
include the Bahá'í Faith in college and university courses, to
give an annotated bibliography of reliable scholarship for the student or
researcher, and to provide him or her with a selection of helpful resources. It
was written with four audiences in mind: (1) university instructors in
Religious Studies, Sociology, Middle East Studies, and other disciplines, who
usually do not know much about the Bahá'í religion and may want
to include it in their existing courses; (2) instructors at colleges and
universities who are Bahá'ís and would like to offer courses on
the Bahá'í religion, but who do not have training in Religious
Studies, and thus do not know what educational standards exist in that field;
(3) Bahá'í students at colleges and universities who would like
to propose a course to the university administration or its Religious Studies
department; (4) those who wish to do research on the Bahá'í Faith
and need an annotated bibliography and resource manual to guide them.
In order to fill the needs of these four very different audiences, the
Resource Guide has four main parts: the Curriculum Guides, the Annotated
Bibliography, Assorted Resource Tools, and Indices.
1) Curriculum Guides for Teaching the Bahá'í Faith
The curriculum guide segment provides some possible outlines for academic
presentations of the Bahá'í Faith. Course outlines include: (1)
an introductory article about the Bahá'í Faith, entitled "The
Bahá'í Faith: A Short Introduction"; (2), a three-hour section on
the Bahá'í Faith designed for inclusion in a course on
Comparative Religion, which lists relevant paragraphs from Section Two,
"Annotated Bibliography of Scholarship on the Bahá'í Faith"; (3)
outlines of four complete one-semester courses on the Bahá'í
Faith, with numerous references to the annotated topical bibliography,
including "A Comparative Religion Approach," "A Sociological Study of the
Bahá'í Community," "The Bahá'í Faith in Historical
and Comparative Perspectives," and "A Traditional Bahá'í Approach
to the Bahá'í Faith."
These outlines are designed to offer assistance for many of the different ways
of approaching the Bahá'í Faith. First, there is the "comparative
religion" approach. Here we intentionally favor the term "comparative religion"
over "history of religions" because we do not choose to emphasize history as
much as an examination of the Bahá'í religion from the point of
view of the major themes found in most religions: prophecy, doctrine,
scripture, community life, ethics, ritual, pilgrimage, mysticism, and others.
Second, there is the "sociological" approach, which emphasizes the members of
the religion themselves: what they believe and why, how they have come to
believe it, how they organized themselves into a community, and what that
community means to them. Third, there is what might be called a traditional
Bahá'í approach, which emphasizes the founders of the
Bahá'í Faith, their writings and teachings, and the
Bahá'í organizational system.
In a sense, the three approaches can be epitomized by considering three terms:
Bahá'í religion, Bahá'í community, and
Bahá'í Faith. "Bahá'í religion" is a neutral term
and carries the overtones of impartial scholarly study. "Bahá'í
community" focuses on the members, individually or collectively, and
de-emphasizes the doctrinal and leadership aspects of the tradition.
"Bahá'í Faith" is the traditional term that Bahá'ís
use for their religion and therefore conveys overtones of piety or sympathetic
appreciation for the tradition.[1] In the
appropriate sphere for each--the comparative-religious, the sociological, and
the traditionally Bahá'í--each term claims primacy for expressing
the essence of the Bahá'í phenomenon.
1. "Baha'ism" is considered inappropriate by Bahá'ís, for reasons that are not easy to determine; it is best
avoided by scholars, just as "Mohammedanism" is now avoided in favor of the term "Islam" and "Musselman" or "Moslem" are avoided in favor of "Muslim."
2) Annotated Bibliography of Scholarship on the Bahá'í Faith
The annotated topical bibliography, comprising the bulk of the Resource
Guide, consists of definitions of most major aspects of
Bahá'í history and belief and corresponding references.
The contents of this bibliography are not intended to be exhaustive. Indeed, we
have only listed a fraction of the available scholarship. In choosing what to
list, we considered: (1) whether the source is too dated; (2) whether the
source is academic enough to be useful in a university setting; and (3) whether
the source presents enough information to be useful. For the most part, then,
we have left out: (1) old scholarship, of which there is very little, anyway;
(2) apologetic and "popular" works; and (3) sources with less than a few pages
of applicable information. Exceptions to the above include: (1) dated works
that are still useful or that have not yet been replaced by newer scholarship
on the same topic; (2) popular works that yet provide useful information or,
indeed, the only published information on a topic; and (3) sources that, though
being short, represent the only available information on a subject.
3) Assorted Resource Tools
The Resource Guide includes a variety of appendices and indices of
possible value to the researcher. First are bibliographies: writings of
Bahá'u'lláh and the "Leiden List" of the major tablets of
Bahá'u'lláh--which manuscripts contain them in their original
language, their place of revelation, and their translation history--followed by
lists of the major published works of the Báb, 'Abdu'l-Bahá, and
Shoghi Effendi, respectively; the citations of the Bábí and
Bahá'í religions found in some of the more common humanities
indices, such as the Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature and a table
presenting the treatment of the Bahá'í Faith in religion
textbooks, dictionaries, and Encyclopedias. Second are two essays: a brief
article which clarifies the common misunderstanding that the
Bahá'í Faith is a syncretism, and an explanation of the many
Bahá'í resources available on the internet. Third are various
listings: Bahá'í videos suitable for classroom use; a glossary of
common Bahá'í terms, including pronunciation notes; and names and
addresses of the major Bahá'í publishers and journals, both
independent and official.
4) Indices
Finally, a comprehensive bibliography and two indices complete the
Guide. The bibliography lists every work cited in the Resource
Guide. The two indices are one listing all journals and encyclopedias
cited, and then one of all authors, titles, and subjects mentioned.
The Resource Guide is not a completed product, but will undergo
expansion, modification, and updating as new materials are published and as
feedback leads to improvements. We encourage comments and criticisms. As well,
we would like to know of any useful and scholarly books or articles that we
have not cited.
Please send any general comments to Robert Stockman,
rstockman@usbnc.org, or Research Office, Bahá'í National
Center, Wilmette, IL, 60091; phone number (847) 733-3425 and fax number (847)
733-3563. Please send any specific corrections or additions to Jonah Winters. Email correspondence is preferred. Robert Stockman
and the Research Office will also be glad to answer additional questions that
the Resource Guide does not cover.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many people have assisted with the development of the Resource Guide, both in writing and editing it and in offering suggestions and corrections. The
following individuals (in alphabetical order) have been instrumental in its
production.
Christopher Buck donated his New World Transliterator font system for use in
the Guide, and offered bibliographic suggestions. Seena Fazel provided detailed
editorial commentary and suggestions for additions, and his articles on
citation analyses and other bibliographic studies helped organize our sections
on these topics. Sen McGlinn also provided much editorial assistance and, in
collaboration with others, compiled the in-depth "Leiden List" of the tablets
of Bahá'u'lláh. Will C. van den Hoonaard assembled the curriculum
guide for "A Sociological Study of the Bahá'í Community."
Chapter 1
THE BAHÁ'Í FAITH
A Short Introduction
This introductory lecture on the Bahá'í religion is only
one approach that can be taken to explaining the Bahá'í Faith.
Depending on the course, one could emphasize the Bahá'í teachings
more strongly, or the Bahá'í community, or other aspects of the
religion. For another general approach, see the article on the
Bahá'í Faith in the most recent Encyclopedia Britannica.
For those interested in reading about the Bahá'í Faith from a
perspective informed by Islamic Studies or Middle Eastern Studies, the articles
on the Bahá'í Faith in the new Encyclopedia of Islam or in
the Encyclopedia Iranica are highly recommended.
Books to start with -- Numerous introductory books on the
Bahá'í religion have been written; the goal has been to include
as many of them as possible in the subject modules, to allow the instructor
complete freedom of choice.
J.E. Esslemont's Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era is a classic
introduction to the Bahá'í Faith, first published in 1923, and
still popular; it is periodically updated to keep its contents current. John
Ferraby's All Things Made New was composed in the late 1950s as an
outline of basic Bahá'í teachings. It strongly emphasizes
traditional Bahá'í categories like God, Manifestations, and
prayer, and focuses little on the Bahá'í community or
Bahá'í family life. John Huddleston's The Earth is But One
Country was first published in 1976 and has a more secular, social-oriented
and political focus than the previous introductory works. All of these works
were prepared before the development of "Bahá'í Studies," which
gradually is making an impact on the contents and quality of introductory
works.
William Hatcher and Douglas Martin's The Bahá'í Faith: The
Emerging Global Religion was the first effort to write a college-level
textbook on the Bahá'í Faith. Peter Smith's Bábí
and Bahá'í Religions offers an innovative sociological
approach to the Bahá'í religion, and his A Short History of
the Bahá'í Faith is an excellent summary of the religion's
history. The two non-Bahá'í journalists Colette Gouvion and
Philippe Jouvion's The Gardeners of God: An Encounter with Five Million
Bahá'ís is another very useful book: it would not work well
for an introduction to the Faith, for the content is non-scholarly and is not
always presented as clearly as a Bahá'í author would present it,
but because of its external but sympathetic standpoint it often has a fresh
viewpoint on Bahá'í matters. Moojan Momen's introductory
textbook, A Short Introduction to the Bahá'í Faith, is a
good but brief summary of Bahá'í teachings and history. Two short
booklet-length summaries of the Faith are Mary Perkins and Philip Hainsworth's
The Bahá'í Faith (96 small pages), and Gloria Faizi's
The Bahá'í Faith (130 small pages).
Basic information on the Bahá'í Faith's historic figures,
significant places, important scriptural works, and salient teachings may also
be found in Wendi Momen's A Basic Bahá'í Dictionary, and
dates in Glenn Cameron and Wendi Momen's A Basic Bahá'í
Chronology, both useful and rapid desk-top references. William Collins'
A Bibliography of English-Language Works on the Bábí and
Bahá'í Faiths, 1844-1985 (Oxford: George Ronald, 1990) is the
most exhaustive bibliographic work published in English (others are available
on the internet--see "Description of Bahá'í Internet Resources,"
below) and is very useful for finding additional sources if one already knows
the names of authors or titles for which to search.
Introduction -- The Bahá'í Faith is the religion founded
by Bahá'u'lláh (1817-92), whose name means "Glory
(Bahá>) of God (Alláh)." In 1863
Bahá'u'lláh announced that he was the messenger sent by God to
bring a new revelation to humanity for this day. Bahá'u'lláh
recorded his revelation in the form of books, essays, and especially letters;
the Bahá'í World Centre possesses over 15,000 authenticated
documents by Him.[1] These constitute
the core of the Bahá'í religion's sacred scriptures. Like most
great religious teachers, Bahá'u'lláh suffered decades of
persecution for his beliefs; he was tortured, imprisoned, and exiled.
In his extensive writings Bahá'u'lláh addressed nearly every
conceivable question, from the nature of spirituality to the setting of
interest rates, from the importance of music, art, and science to child
rearing. Many of these teachings can be classified into four categories; (1)
teachings about God; (2) teachings about the individual's relationship to God;
(3) teachings about how human beings should relate to each other and
restructure human society; (4) teachings about the establishment of a
Bahá'í community.
Teachings about God -- Bahá'u'lláh describes God as an
unknowable essence; that is, God is so great that no matter how much we can
know about our Creator, there will always be something that transcends the
grasp of our finite minds. To help human beings learn about God's nature and
about truth, this Essence sends Manifestations of God,[2] individuals who manifest God's
perfections and virtues to humanity and expound God's teachings. These
Manifestations are very rare; they usually suffer for the teachings they bring;
and their teachings become the basis of a new world religion.
Bahá'ís believe God has always sent Manifestations to educate
humanity. The legends and folklore of many tribes and peoples preserve stories
of ancient personalities who may have been Manifestations of God. The
Bahá'í writings specifically recognize Krishna, Zoroaster,
Buddha, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, the Báb (the forerunner of
Bahá'u'lláh), and Bahá'u'lláh as Manifestations.
Thus Bahá'ís believe that all the major religions in the world
constitute chapters in the Religion of God. The Bahá'í Faith is
the most recent chapter in the story.
Teachings about the individual -- Bahá'ís believe that God
created the world and that everything within it reflects a sign or attribute of
God. The Bahá'í scriptures describe the human soul as immortal
and as containing all God's attributes, or qualities, but these qualities exist
only potentially until they are developed. Developing them constitutes one of
the principal purposes of life on this physical plane of existence. Development
of these qualities and virtues, and of our knowledge and love of God, leads to
a spiritual happiness that constitutes a kind of heaven, in this world or the
next; failure to develop them constitutes a kind of hell. Bahá'ís
believe that human beings have the volition to develop themselves;
Bahá'ís reject, on the one hand, belief in a devil who
manipulates and controls human beings, and, on the other hand, belief in a
completely passive spiritual life where the individual waits for God to bring
about all of his or her spiritual transformation.
Rather, Bahá'u'lláh stresses an active spiritual life. Central to
it is daily reading from and meditating on scripture, so that one internalizes
divine teachings and spiritual qualities. Prayer is strongly emphasized, not
because God needs the prayers of humans, but because prayer is a form of
listening to God and because one needs to learn to speak to God.
Bahá'u'lláh has revealed three obligatory prayers, one of
which each Bahá'í is supposed to say each day;
Bahá'u'lláh has also revealed hundreds of prayers for specific
purposes such as illness, forgiveness, spiritual tests, and death, and prayers
to say for one's spouse, children, parents, or for those who have died.
Bahá'u'lláh urges Bahá'ís to bring themselves to
account each day before God, so that they can review their actions, thank God
for their successes, ask God to forgive them for their failures, and consider
ways of doing better the next day. The Bahá'í religion also has
an annual period of fasting; by choosing not to eat or drink from sunrise to
sunset, Bahá'ís remember their dependence on God, express their
severance from the material world, and strengthen the bonds between them and
their fellow believers.
Bahá'u'lláh describes two purposes of human existence; one is "to
know and to worship God" and the other is "to carry forward an ever-advancing
civilization." Bahá'ís accomplish the latter goal by teaching
others about the spiritual and social teachings of their religion by word and
by deed.
Social Teachings -- Bahá'u'lláh wrote extensively about
the urgent need to reform human society. His plan revolves around a single
principle: the oneness of humanity. This principle rejects all efforts to
subordinate any race, religion, nation, ethnic group, or social class to any
other. As a result, from the beginning there has been a strenuous effort to
diversify the Bahá'í community so that it includes individuals
from all races, religions, ethnic groups, and social classes, and to integrate
them into diverse and vibrant local Bahá'í communities. The
oneness of humanity also includes the principle of the equality of men and
women; the Bahá'í scriptures describe humanity as being like a
bird with two wings, which must be of equal strength for the bird to fly. The
oneness of humanity implies the importance of loyalty, first, to the human
race, and second to one's own nation. The resources of the planet Earth must be
allocated and distributed for the advantage of the whole. For this reason the
Bahá'í Faith advocates a world federal system, to maintain world
peace and regulate the world economy. It urges selection of a world language,
which all would learn in addition to their native tongues. It supports
universal compulsory education, so that everyone can have access to divine
revelation and to the accumulated wisdom of humanity.
But Bahá'ís do not believe that social reform can be accomplished
only through world government; a change of basic attitudes toward others,
toward money, toward work, toward knowledge, toward the family, and toward
institutions is necessary. To exemplify these changes, Bahá'ís
have formed a religious community.
Teachings about Religious Community -- Bahá'u'lláh
envisioned a diverse religious community that would function through the
principles of consultation, that is, the principle that the opinions and ideas
of every member are important; that they must be respected; and that in the
Bahá'í community decisions are made and actions taken after
discussion and consensus. Rather than having a clergy, the Bahá'í
Faith has an elected, collective leadership. Each local Bahá'í
community (which consists of all the Bahá'ís who live in a
particular place) elects each year a nine-member local spiritual
assembly, which owns the community property, plans the community meetings,
disciplines members, oversees Bahá'í marriages, divorces, and
funerals, counsels individuals, and often runs schools or other projects for
the betterment of everyone in that locality. An effort is made to involve all
members in the religion's decisions, activities, and functions; spiritual
assemblies delegate much authority to representatives and committees, which tap
the talents of many Bahá'ís.
A nine-member national spiritual assembly, elected annually, coordinates
national Bahá'í affairs such as publishing, educating the
Bahá'í community, working with governments and non-governmental
organizations, and creating long-term plans for expansion and consolidation.
The Universal House of Justice, also having nine members, is elected
every five years by all the members of the national spiritual assemblies and
coordinates the Bahá'í religion at the world level. The Universal
House of Justice also appoints individuals called Counselors, who in turn
appoint local Auxiliary Board members, who in turn appoint assistants. The
Auxiliary Board members and their assistants consult with and advise the local
spiritual assemblies; the Counselors do the same with national assemblies and
the Universal House of Justice and inform them about local conditions around
the world. These individuals have no authority, but represent a tangible
institution to maintain consultation between all regions and all levels of the
Bahá'í world community.
Bahá'í community life involves a minimum of ritual. Nine holy
days throughout the year, which usually commemorate events in the lives of the
Báb and Bahá'u'lláh, represent times for
Bahá'í communities to meet and for families to share their
Bahá'í commitment together. Once every Bahá'í month
(which has nineteen days) the Bahá'í community meets in what is
called a feast. It consists of a worship portion, where
Bahá'í scriptures and prayers are recited; a business portion,
where the community and its spiritual assembly consult together; and a social
portion, where fellowship is shared. Prayer meetings, deepenings (where
the Bahá'í scriptures or teachings are studied) and
firesides (where the Bahá'í teachings are discussed at an
introductory level) are sponsored by many individuals and local spiritual
assemblies in homes on a weekly or monthly basis, and constitute the most
common social events in a local Bahá'í community.
The Bahá'í Community consists of those persons who have
accepted Bahá'u'lláh as the Manifestation of God for this day.
Bahá'í communities are found in virtually every nation and
territory on the planet. Initially drawing its members from the
Shí'í Muslims of Iran, in Bahá'u'lláh's own
lifetime the community expanded to include converts from Sunni Muslims, Jews,
Zoroastrians, and Christians. From Iran it spread to Central Asia, Iraq, Syria,
Turkey, Palestine, and Egypt. In the 1870s it reached India and in the 1880s,
Burma; there Buddhists became Bahá'ís. Bahá'í
teachers traveled throughout southeast Asia, to China, and to Sudan.
Bahá'u'lláh appointed his son 'Abdu'l-Bahá (1844-1921),
whose name means "Servant ('Abd) of Bahá'u'lláh
(Bahá>)," as his successor and head of the
Bahá'í Faith and to be the exemplar and interpreter of its
teachings. 'Abdu'l-Bahá wrote over 27,000 documents, mostly letters,
which are also a part of Bahá'í scripture. Under
'Abdu'l-Bahá's guidance, the Bahá'í Faith spread to
Europe, North America, the Pacific islands, and Australia. Bahá'í
teaching was conducted in Japan, China, Korea, and southern Africa.
'Abdu'l-Bahá began to establish local and national Bahá'í
governing bodies and laid the foundation for systematic plans for the spreading
of the Bahá'í religion to the entire world. Under his successor,
Shoghi Effendi (1897-1957), Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith
from 1921 to 1957, local and national spiritual assemblies were established all
over the world and systematic plans for carrying the Bahá'í Faith
to Latin America, Africa, and other places where it had not penetrated were
undertaken. Shoghi Effendi laid the foundation for the election of the
Universal House of Justice, a body whose functions were described by
Bahá'u'lláh and 'Abdu'l-Bahá in great detail. The
Universal House of Justice was first elected in 1963 and is the head
institution of the Bahá'í Faith today.
As of April 1991 the Bahá'í world community had over five million
members and was growing at 4.4 percent each year. In at least 34 nations and
significant territories the Bahá'í membership had exceeded one
percent of the population; in Tuvalu, Tonga, Guyana, and Belize it had exceeded
five percent of the population; in Kiribati (a small nation in the mid-Pacific)
seventeen percent of the population was Bahá'í. As of April 1996,
the Bahá'í international community had 174 national spiritual
assemblies and almost 20,000 local spiritual assemblies. Over 2,100 ethnic
groups can be found within it, and Bahá'í literature has been
translated into 802 languages. The Bahá'í community operates over
1,300 social and economic development projects worldwide, including
approximately 650 schools and seven radio stations. The United States has about
120,000 Bahá'ís, residing in approximately 7,200 localities, and
1,350 local spiritual assemblies. Its national headquarters is near the
Bahá'í House of Worship in Wilmette, Illinois; the American
Bahá'ís operate a publishing trust, five permanent schools and
institutes, and a radio station.[3]
A Three-Hour Section on the
Bahá'í Faith
Occasionally instructors want not one hour, but several hours of material on a
particular topic. This is particularly true if a course meets in the evening;
such class sessions usually last two and a half to four hours. This part of the
Resource Guide provides a section of three one-hour classes on the
Bahá'í Faith, suitable for use in one evening or in three
one-hour classes during the day. The material could also be rearranged and
shortened so that it is suitable for a two hour or two and a half-hour class.
A three-hour section is best prepared by using the information on various
Bahá'í subjects provided in Section Two, "Annotated Bibliography
of Scholarship on the Bahá'í Faith." One way a three-hour unit
could be created would be to expand "The Bahá'í Faith: A Short
Introduction" above by adding material from the various subjects in Section
Two. An instructor could also assemble three hours of material by combining the
introductory lecture with any two subjects chosen from the bibliography. This
approach might be characterized as basic information plus "selected studies" on
aspects of the Bahá'í religion. Two hours of introductory
material plus a third, specialized hour of selected study could also be
designed.
However, for those who prefer three hours of material that is planned to be
comprehensive and continuous, the following division is offered. The numbers in
square brackets represent the various aspects of the Bahá'í Faith
outlined in Section Two, the Annotated Bibliography.
1. Bahá'í Origins. Islamic and Iranian Background [¶7].
The Báb and Babism [¶6]. The life of Bahá'u'lláh
[¶11].
2. Bahá'í Teachings. The Bahá'í Concepts of God
[¶28], Revelation [¶54], Manifestation [¶37],
Creation [¶16], and Humanity [¶34]. Prayer and the Spiritual
Life [¶38, ¶64]. Social Teachings [¶63].
3. Bahá'í Community [¶12]. The Ministries of
'Abdu'l-Bahá [¶1] and Shoghi Effendi [¶61]. Creation
of the Administrative Order [¶2] and Expansion of the
Bahá'í Faith Globally, 1892-1996 [¶8, ¶10]. The
Future [¶39, ¶48].
4. Other subjects that could be included: community life [¶12];
consultation [¶13]; education [¶18]; family life
[¶22]; holy places [¶32]; Houses of Worship [¶33];
oneness of humanity [¶34, ¶67]; pilgrimage [¶43];
prayer and fasting [¶46]; religious dialogue and pluralism
[¶53]; race relations [¶51]; ritual [¶55];
progressive revelation [¶54]; science and religion [¶59];
spiritual life [¶64]; women [¶27]; work [¶68]; peace
[¶40].
One-Semester Courses on the Bahá'í
Faith: Four Samples
The following course outlines were developed to give examples of different ways
the Bahá'í religion could be taught in one semester. Undoubtedly
other arrangements of the basic material could also be made; these outlines are
not exhaustive of the possibilities. Two outlines were drawn up assuming that
thirty-six one-hour class meetings were available for lecture and discussion
(the remaining meetings being devoted to examinations, videos, etc.). One was
drawn up for twenty 90-minute class meetings, as is typical in a school on a
quarter system. The other outline divides the class into thirteen one-week
segments. The four outlines below approach the Bahá'í Faith from
the following perspectives:
1. A "comparative religion" perspective, typical of Religious Studies
departments, that would examine the Bahá'í religion in terms of
its concept of the holy; its view of God, Manifestations, other religions,
humanity, and creation; its myths, narratives, and ritual practices; and its
community organization and life.
2. A "sociological" perspective, typical of sociology departments, that
emphasizes routinization of charisma, ideology, community structure and
maintenance, recruitment, involvement in society, and case studies.
3. An outline that mixes both of the above approaches, with more emphasis on
history.
4. A "traditional" Bahá'í approach, which emphasizes the lives of
the central figures of the Bahá'í religion, Bahá'í
history, and Bahá'í teachings.
The numbers following the paragraph sign (¶) at the end of each line
in the curriculum guides give the units in Section Two where one will find a
detailed description and bibliography of each relevant topic. Because the four
courses sometimes contain the same, or very similar, topics, it seemed best to
place the descriptions and bibliographies of the topics covered by each course
in a single section. This approach also makes it easier for instructors to
prepare their own course by mixing units from different outlines.
A "Comparative Religion" Approach
to the Bahá'í Faith
Textbooks: James C. Livingston, Anatomy of the Sacred: An Introduction to
Religion or some other comparative-religion textbook that describes the
various aspects of religion; Bahá'u'lláh, Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh; Peter Smith, The Bábí and
Bahá'í Religions. For a more introductory class, Moojan
Momen's A Short Introduction to the Bahá'í Faith could be
substituted for Smith.
The purpose of this course is to introduce the student to the academic study of
religion, using the Bahá'í Faith as an example. It uses
Livingston's textbook, which covers the different aspects of religion such as
the sacred and holy, ritual, community, the world, the origin of things, and
the purpose of human existence. Livingston's text does not mention the
Bahá'í Faith; that material comes from original texts and from
Peter Smith's text.
1. What is Religion? Livingston, ch. 1; Bahá'u'lláh, 481-82
(Gleanings CX); 420, bottom (Gleanings, XXXIV, near end); 233
(First Ishráq) [¶52].
2. What is the Bahá'í Faith? A summary. Encyclopedia
Britannica article reprint, "The Bahá'í Faith"; Shoghi
Effendi, Call to the Nations, xi-xviii [¶9].
3. How is Religion Studied? How has the Bahá'í religion been
studied? Livingston, ch. 2 [¶9].
4. The Sacred and the Holy. Livingston, 47-54 (ch. 3); prayers of the greatness
and mystery of God, Bahá'u'lláh, 387-88 (Gleanings I);
412-16 (Gleanings XXVI, XXVII); 596-601 (Prayers and Meditations
LXXV-LXXX) [¶28].
5. Concepts of God. Livingston, ch. 7 (163-94); Bahá'u'lláh,
406-7 (Gleanings XIX XX) [¶28].
6. Manifestations of God. Bahá'u'lláh, 407-423 (Gleanings,
XXI-XXXV); 462-63 (Gleanings LXXXVII) [¶37].
7. The Life of Bahá'u'lláh. Bahá'u'lláh, 426
(Gleanings, XLI-XLII); 429-34 (Gleanings XLV-LIV); 437-44
(Gleanings, LIX-LXVII); 446-48 (Gleanings, LXXXI-LXXXII)
[¶11].
8. Religious Symbol and Myth. Livingston, ch. 4 (68-93);
Bahá'u'lláh, 423 (Gleanings, XXXVI); 73-77
(Íqán, interpretation of the symbols "sun," "moon," and
"stars"); 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered Questions, 122-26
(interpretation of the Garden of Eden) [¶57].
9. Revelation. Bahá'u'lláh, 245 (Tablet of Wisdom, where
Bahá'u'lláh describes how he receives revelation); 424-25
(Gleanings, XXXVII-XL) [¶54].
10. Religious Dialogue and Pluralism. Livingston, ch. 13 (351-68);
Bahá'u'lláh 175-80 (Tablet to the Christians); 181-82 (first,
second, and eighth Glad-Tidings); 187 (second Taráz); 235 (ninth
Ishráq) [¶53].
11. Nature: Its Origin and Purpose. Livingston, ch. 8 (198-224).
Bahá'u'lláh, 452-53 (Gleanings, LXXVIII-LXIX); 459
(Gleanings LXXXIV); 464 (Gleanings XC) [¶19].
12. Investigation of Nature: Science. Bahá'u'lláh, 183 (eleventh
Glad-Tidings); 189 (sixth Taráz); p. 195 (third Tajallí); 254
(part of tablet of Maqsúd) [¶59].
13. Humanity: Its Nature and Purpose. Livingston, ch. 9 (228-51);
Bahá'u'lláh, 456-59 (Gleanings, LXXXII-LXXXIII); 481
(Gleanings, CIX); 532-34 (Gleanings, CLV); 501 (Gleanings,
CXXII) [¶34].
14. The Spiritual Quest. Livingston, ch. 11 (p. 285-316);
Bahá'u'lláh, 3-29 (Seven Valleys); 501-05
(Gleanings, CXXIV-CXXV) [¶38, ¶64].
15. Sin, Tests, and Growth. Bahá'u'lláh, 183 (ninth
Glad-Tidings); 188-89 (third and fourth Taráz); 248-49 (Words of Wisdom)
[¶64, ¶65].
16. Life and Afterlife. Livingston, ch. 12, 33-7; Bahá'u'lláh,
35-59 (Hidden Words); 453-56 (Gleanings, LXXIX-LXXXI)
[¶3, ¶53.12].
17. Family Life and Work. Bahá'u'lláh, 162-63 (Synopsis and
Codification extracts 8 and 12 / Aqdas paragraphs 48 and 63); 47
(Persian Hidden Words, 80-82); 234-35 (seventh Ishráq);
prayers for marriage, children, and family [¶22, ¶68].
18. Divine Justice. Livingston, ch. 10 (254-82); Bahá'u'lláh, 51
(Arabic Hidden Words 2); 424 (Gleanings, XXXVII); 576 (Prayers
and Meditations LV); 580 (Prayers and Meditations, LVII); 584 (Prayers
and Meditations, LX) [¶35].
19. Religious Community. Livingston, ch. 6, 130-41; Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh, 160 (Synopsis and Codification extract 5
/ Aqdas paragraph 30); 162 (Synopsis and Codification extract 9 /
Aqdas paragraph 52); 169 (Synopsis and Codification extract 20 /
Aqdas paragraph 173); 182 (fifth Glad-Tidings, in Tablets of
Bahá'u'lláh revealed after the Kitáb-i-Aqdas
(henceforth "Tablets") 22-23); 184 (thirteenth Glad-Tidings, in
Tablets 26-27); 185 (fifteenth Glad-Tidings, in Tablets p. 28);
203-4 (eighth and ninth leaves of Paradise, in Tablets 68-71); 234-35
(sixth, seventh, and eighth Ishráq, in Tablets 127-129);
Prayer for the Hands of the Cause, in Malaysian Prayer Book, page 37)
[¶12].
20. The Bahá'í community in the Middle East, 1863-92
[¶7, ¶8].
21. 'Abdu'l-Bahá: Interpreter, Mystery of God, Center of the Covenant.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 278-81 (Book of the Covenant,
Tablet to the Land of Bá, also in Tablets 219-223 and 227-228);
Shoghi Effendi, World Order of Bahá'u'lláh, 131-39
('Abdu'l-Bahá section of Dispensation of
Bahá'u'lláh) [¶1].
22. The Bahá'í world community, 1892-1921 [¶8].
23. Shoghi Effendi, Guardian of the Faith. 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Will and
Testament of 'Abdu'l-Bahá [¶61].
24. The Bahá'í Administrative Order. Shoghi Effendi, Call to
the Nations, 36-44 [¶2].
25. The Bahá'í world community, 1921-63 [¶10.2,
¶10.3].
26. The Bahá'í world community, 1963-96 [¶10.4,
¶10.5].
27. Consultation and Covenant. Livingston, ch. 6, 141-50 ("Protest and
Change"); Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 278-81 (Book of the
Covenant, also in Tablets 219-223); 539 (Gleanings, CLXVI);
Bahá'u'lláh, in Consultation: A Compilation [¶12,
¶15].
28. Sacred Space (Bahá'í World Centre, Houses of Worship, places
of pilgrimage). Livingston, 54-65. Bahá'u'lláh, 173-74 (Tablet of
Carmel); 435-37 (Gleanings, LVII-LVIII); 677-81 (Tablet of Visitation)
[¶32, ¶33, ¶43].
29. Sacred Time: The Bahá'í Calendar and Holy Days. Livingston,
116-20; Bahá'í Calendar handout (from
Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era, 178-79) [¶24].
30. Ritual. Livingston, ch. 5 (p. 97-126); Bahá'u'lláh, 681-86
(obligatory prayers); 576-80 (Prayers and Meditations, LVI, fasting
prayer) [¶55].
31. Social Order. Livingston, ch. 6, 150-58); Bahá'u'lláh,
181-238 (Bishárát, Tarázát,
Tajallíyát, Tablet of the World, Ishráqát)
[¶63].
32. The Oneness of Humanity. Bahá'u'lláh, 58 (Arabic Hidden
Words, 68); 203 (sixth and seventh leaves of Paradise); 234 (sixth
Ishráq) [¶67].
33. World Peace. The Promise of World Peace; Bahá'u'lláh,
496-99 (Gleanings, CXVII-CXX) [¶40].
34. A New World Order. Livingston, ch. 12, 320-34; Bahá'u'lláh,
233 (second Ishráq); 478-79 (Gleanings, CIV); 480-81
(Gleanings, CVI-CVIII); 482-83 (Gleanings, CXI-CXII); Shoghi
Effendi, Call to the Nations, 45-66 [¶39].
35. Prospect.
A Sociological Study of the
Bahá'í Community
by Will C. van den Hoonaard
University of New Brunswick
(Email: wcvdh@unb.ca)
The following syllabus is designed to introduce the Bahá'í Faith
to sociology students. It relates developments within the Bahá'í
community to particular sociological concerns and tools. Since university and
college teachers have individual interests and techniques in mind, the syllabus
is simply one of many approaches to the sociological study of the
Bahá'í community.
While this outline covers the sociological aspects of the Bahá'í
community, teachers could consider a follow-up course that outlines the
Bahá'í perspective on society. In such a course, one would
consider Bahá'í hermeneutics, Bahá'í political and
social thought, the Bahá'í conception of historical and social
processes, etc.
The present syllabus covers thirteen weeks of instruction.
I. Introduction
Scholarly attention to study of the Bahá'í Religion: a review of
the literature and field.
Discussion of sources.
II. Theoretical Issues in Sociology
a. Typologies in the literature of new religions and social movements.
b. The generation of data through the symbolic interactionist,
functionalist, and conflict perspectives, and frame analysis.
c. The debate of class versus ethnicity.
III. Methodological Questions
a. Obstacles and prospects of studying the Bahá'í
community.
b. What constitutes valid sources of information for studying the
Bahá'í community?
c. Various research strategies
IV. Origins
a. Background
Islam, Shí'ism, Shaykhism
19th-century Iran
b. The Báb
Life and Teachings
Sources and Social Context
Rise and Growth of Bábism
Persecution and Fragmentation of the Bábí community
c. Bahá'u'lláh
Life and Teachings
Sources and Social Context
d. 'Abdu'l-Bahá
Biography
V. Routinization of Charisma
a. Bahá'u'lláh's Death and Succession of
'Abdu'l-Bahá
b. Opposition
General Principles underlying the Covenant
Opposition during 'Abdu'l-Bahá's ministry, 1892-1921
Will and Testament of 'Abdu'l-Bahá
c. Establishment of the Guardianship
d. The Period of the Hands of the Cause of God, 1957-63
e. The Establishment of the Universal House of Justice, 1963
VI. Doctrine and Ideology
a. Islamic sources
b. Primary versus Secondary Sources
c. The Question of Westernization
d. Revealed Text, Interpretation, and Infallibility
e. Bahá'í Political and Social Thought
VII. Growth and Development of the Bahá'í World
Community
a. The early spread, 1844-92
b. Early spread from East to West, 1892-1921
c. The period from 1921 to 1937
d. Developments, 1937-53
e. Developments since 1953
VIII. Organizational Structures
a. Bahá'í theory
Bahá'í organizational structure
Theory and nature of the institutions of the "rulers" and the
"learned"
b. Overview and nature of institutions of the "rulers" and the "learned"
c. The local structure
The Nineteen-Day Feast
Local Spiritual Assembly
d. The national structure
The national convention
e. The international structure
The Universal House of Justice
The International Teaching Centre
Other institutions: The Centre for the Study of the Sacred Texts, World Centre
Library, International Bahá'í Archives
IX. Recruitment and Socialization
a. Explaining the growth of the Bahá'í community
Structural explanations
Deprivation model
Social disorganization
The deviant model, Simmel's "stranger"
Conflict of ideology/reality
b. Conversion process of acquiring Bahá'í common stock of
knowledge
c. Teaching the Bahá'í Faith in various cultural contexts
d. The sociological question of recruitment and participation of women in
new religious movements
X. Maintenance
a. Member Commitment and mobilization
b. Boundary maintenance
c. Authority and power
d. Principles of consultation
XI. Direct Involvement in Society
a. Bahá'ís and the United Nations
b. Social and economic development projects
c. Peace-related activities
d. Racial equality
e. Women's rights
f. Contact with other religious communities
g. The emergence from obscurity
XII. Case Studies of Selected Bahá'í Communities
a. Historical
Iran, 1844-92
Asia, 1892-1921
Occident, 1892-1921
b. Contemporary
A national Bahá'í community in an industrial society
A Third-World Bahá'í community
An emerging national Bahá'í community in Eastern
Europe
XIII. Some Contemporary Issues
a. Non-partisan involvement in politics
b. Impact of the persecution of the Iranian Bahá'ís
c. Minorities and indigenous peoples
d. Integration of Eastern and Western Bahá'ís
The Bahá'í Faith in Historical
and Comparative Perspectives
This course is designed to introduce the student to the Bahá'í
religion in its basic aspects: its history, the lives of its founders, its
teachings, its practices, and its international community. It will follow a
framework typical of courses in "comparative" religions. In addition, it will
examine the Bahá'í religion from the point of view of questions
of importance to scholars of religion today, such as: how does a new religion
arise? How does it attract members, and why? How does it survive the death of
its founder? How does it balance central authority and individual freedom? When
its teachings inevitably evolve, how are the resulting changes justified, and
what role does outside cultural, social, and religious influence play?
Peter Smith's The Bábí and Bahá'í Religions:
From Messianic Shí'ism to a World Religion is
the best work to use as a basic textbook, but it will require considerable
supplementation from historical and sociological works and from primary
sources. Important supplementation comes from Abbas Amanat's Resurrection
and Renewal.
Topics Covered:
1. Preliminaries. What is the Bahá'í Faith? A Summary of the
Religion.
2. The Problem of Summarizing a Religion, and an Examination of Various
Summaries of the Bahá'í Faith that have been produced. One
quickly notices the summaries vary enormously in content; why is this? Is one
summary "valid" or "better"? What is the history of producing summaries of the
Bahá'í Faith?
3, 4. The Rise of the Bábí Movement in Iran, 1844-50. What was
the Shí'ite Muslim culture of nineteenth-century Iran like, and
what social and cultural stresses did it face? What were the cultural and
social precursors to the rise of Babism? To whom did it appeal, and why? What
caused Shí'ite Muslims to become Bábís? Abbas
Amanat's book Resurrection and Renewal will be the chief source.
5, 6. The Figure of 'Alí-Muhammad the Báb. Who did he claim to
be, and did his claim change? Examination of the Báb's life experience,
the question of its influence on his teachings, and the controversy surrounding
his claims. Amanat's book will be used here as well.
7. The Bábí Movement. Marxist, polemical Islamic, sociological,
and other examinations of it.
8. Husayn-'Alí Bahá'u'lláh. His claims and writings. Juan
R. Cole on the sources of his ideas (articles by Cole in World Order
magazine and in The International Journal of Middle East Studies).
9. The Bahá'í Community in Iran, 1863-92. Growth and
organization. Several published and unpublished articles will provide the
information and reading.
10. Conversion of Iranian Zoroastrians, Jews, and Christians to the
Bahá'í Faith; Cultural and Social Factors that Brought
Non-Shí'ite Minorities into the Community (Master's degree thesis
and articles by Susan Stiles Maneck). Maneck sees minority conversion as being
prompted by modernization of the country, the relatively modern
Bahá'í teachings, and the ability of the Bahá'ís to
portray their religion as the fulfillment of traditional religious
expectations.
11. Midterm Examination. Or: if there is no exam, a time to discuss and review
the first half of the quarter.
12. Bahá'u'lláh's Death and 'Abdu'l-Bahá's Succession,
1892. Development of the Bahá'í concept of the Covenant. Ideas of
routinization of charisma in the Bahá'í community. (Readings from
two sociological Ph.D. dissertations on the Bahá'í Faith, one by
Vernon Elwin Johnson, the other by Peter L. Berger.)
13. Sources of 'Abdu'l-Bahá's Ideas. Did 'Abdu'l-Bahá
"westernize" or "modernize" the Bahá'í Faith? Arguments by
western missionaries.
14. Introduction of the Bahá'í Faith to the United States,
1894-1899. Inadequate access to the Bahá'í scriptures leads to
uniquely American interpretations of the Bahá'í religion, and
considerable chaos when more Bahá'í scriptures become available
in English. Readings from articles and manuscript works by Peter Smith and
Robert Stockman.
15. The American Bahá'í Community, 1900-12. What sort of
Americans became Bahá'ís, and why? Did the community have a
"mainstream" and a "fringe"? Nature and cause of controversies in the American
Bahá'í community.
16. 'Abdu'l-Bahá's Visit to the United States and Canada, 1912. What was
its purpose, and what impact did it have? The visit is a case study in the
difficulty the Bahá'í Faith has in influencing outside culture.
'Abdu'l-Bahá had less impact on American society and culture than Swami
Vivekananda and other "oriental" religious teachers, but he was able to
consolidate the American Bahá'í community to a considerable
degree.
17. 'Abdu'l-Bahá's Death and the Succession of Shoghi Effendi, 1921. How
and why did Shoghi Effendi immediately establish the Bahá'í
organizational system? What impact did it have on the Bahá'í
community? Brief readings from works by Peter Smith, Robert Stockman, Loni
Bramson-Lerche, Vernon Johnson, and Protestant missionary critics of the
Bahá'í Faith.
18. Creation of an International Community, 1937-57. Spread of the
Bahá'í Faith in Latin America, Africa, East and Southeast Asia,
and the Pacific. Readings from Peter Smith on the role of organization and the
development of a Bahá'í community in the Third World.
19. Developments in the 60s and 70s. Election of the Universal House of
Justice, 1963. Explosive growth of the American Bahá'í community,
1967-73, through reaching the youth counterculture, involvement in the civil
rights movement, and controversial new teaching techniques that bring thousands
of rural blacks into the Bahá'í Faith. Contemporary readings.
20. Developments in the 80s and 90s. The Iranian Revolution and persecution of
the Iranian Bahá'í community; the new interest in
Bahá'í scholarship; a new emphasis on social and economic
development and literacy in the Bahá'í community; rapid growth
and maturity of the Third World Bahá'í communities; explosive
growth of the Bahá'í Faith in the former Soviet bloc.
A Traditional Bahá'í Approach
to the Bahá'í Faith
A course on the Bahá'í Faith that follows a fairly "traditional"
Bahá'í approach may not be appropriate as a credit-course at a
college or university, but might be useful as a non-credit course or as a
course at a Bahá'í summer school.
Various introductory textbooks
could be used: Esslemont, Momen, Smith, or Hatcher and Martin are probably the
best choices. The appropriate page numbers may be found in the modules in
Section Two of this Resource Guide, "Annotated Bibliography of
Scholarship on the Bahá'í Faith." For the study of the
Bahá'í scriptures, the works of Bahá'u'lláh have
been published together as a single volume titled Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh, but no comparable work yet exists for
'Abdu'l-Bahá or Shoghi Effendi; thus the teacher cannot avoid assigning
reading from a large number of books.
1. Introduction: Course Philosophy and Structure. Summary of the
Bahá'í religion
2. Background: Islam and Shí'ism
3. Background: Nineteenth Century Iran and Shaykhism
4. The Báb: Early Life and Prophetic Career
5. The Báb's Teachings: Sources and Historical Context
6. The Bábí Movement
7. Bahá'u'lláh: Early Life and Prophetic Career
8. The Early Writings of Bahá'u'lláh: The Hidden Words,
Seven Valleys, Four Valleys, and The
Kitáb-i-Íqán.
9. Later Writings of Bahá'u'lláh: Proclamation to the Kings, the
Kitáb-i-Aqdas, Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh revealed after
the Kitáb-i-Aqdas
10. Creation of a Bahá'í Community, 1863-92
11. 'Abdu'l-Bahá: His Ministry and Works
12. Bahá'í Communities in Southwest and South Asia, 1892-1921
13. The Bahá'í Faith in the Occident, 1892-21
14. 'Abdu'l-Bahá's Journeys in America and Europe: Impact on the
Bahá'í Community and on Bahá'í Doctrine
15. Major Works of 'Abdu'l-Bahá: Tablets of the Divine Plan and
The Will and Testament of 'Abdu'l-Bahá
16. Shoghi Effendi: Life and Works, Summary
17. Establishment of the Bahá'í Administrative Order, 1921-37
18. Codification of Bahá'í Belief: World Order of
Bahá'u'lláh, Advent of Divine Justice, and Promised
Day is Come.
19. The Bahá'í Faith Worldwide: Growth, Persecution, and The
First and Second Seven Year Plans (1921-53)
20. Globalization and Completion of the Administration: The Ten Year Crusade
(1953-63) and the Death of the Guardian
21. The Interregnum and Election of the House of Justice (1957-63)
22. The Bahá'í Community, 1963-79: Emergence of a Third World
Bahá'í Community
23. The Bahá'í World Community, 1979 present: Iranian
Persecution, Globalization
24. Messages of the Universal House of Justice, 1963 present
25. Bahá'í Theology: God, Revelation, Manifestation, Humanity,
and Creation
26. Bahá'í Epistemology: Science and Investigation of Reality
27. Bahá'í Sacred History: Progressive Revelation and the
Bahá'í Theology of Religions
28. Bahá'í Piety: The Spiritual Path and Journey of the Soul
29. Bahá'í Pilgrimage; The Bahá'í World Centre
30. Marriage and Family; The Roles of Men and Women
31. The Community Experience: Bahá'í Community and Ritual Life
32. Bahá'í Houses of Worship: Architecture and Social Theory
33. The Experience of Diversity: Racial Integration in the Bahá'í
Community
34. Peace, War, and the "Lesser Peace"
35. The "Most Great Peace": A Bahá'í Utopia?
36. Prospect
Footnotes:
1 See section ¶60.
Scripture for a discussion of these numbers.
2 The term "Manifestation" will be consistently capitalized to
distinguish the person of the Manifestation from the philosophical concept of
manifestation (see 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered Questions,
205-207), which is wholly unrelated.
3 These statistics are as of April, 1996. Many are estimates.
Chapter 2
Section Two:
Annotated Bibliography of Noteworthy
Scholarship on the Bahá'í Faith
TABLE OF CONTENTS
¶i. Some Prefatory Notes and Considerations
¶ii. Format of this section
¶1. 'Abdu'l-Bahá
¶1.1. 'Abdu'l-Bahá's Journeys in America and Europe
¶2. Administrative Order: History and Institutions
¶2.1. Establishment of the Administrative Order, 1921-37
¶2.2. The Guardianship
¶2.3. Rulers and Learned
¶2.4. The Interregnum and Election of the House of Justice (1957-63)
¶2.5. Houses of Justice
¶3. Afterlife
¶4. Agriculture
¶5. Art, Literature, Music, Architecture
¶6. The Báb and the Bábí Movement, 1844-62
¶6.1. The Báb: Early Life and Prophetic Career
¶6.2. The Báb's Teachings: Sources and Historical Context
¶6.3. The Bábí Community
¶7. Background of the Bahá'í Faith: Islam, Shaykhism, and Iran
¶7.1. Background: Islam and Shí'ism
¶7.2. Background: Nineteenth-Century Iran and Shaykhism
¶8. Bahá'í Communities of the World
¶8.1. The Bahá'í Faith in Africa, Latin America, and Oceania
¶8.2. The Bahá'í Faith in Europe
¶8.3. The Bahá'í Faith in Iran
¶8.4. The Bahá'í Faith in North America
¶8.5. The Bahá'í Faith in the Former Soviet Union
¶8.6. The Bahá'í Faith in South and East Asia
¶9. Bahá'í Faith, Introduction to
¶10. Bahá'í History
¶10.1. Bahá'í History, 1863-92
¶10.2. Bahá'í History, 1921-1953
¶10.3. Bahá'í History, 1953-63
¶10.4. Bahá'í History, 1963-79
¶10.5. Bahá'í History, 1979-Present
¶11. Bahá'u'lláh
¶11.1. Bahá'u'lláh's Life and Mission
¶11.2. Bahá'u'lláh's Writings
¶12. Community
¶13. Consultation
¶14. Conversion
¶15. Covenant
¶16. Creation: Its Origin and Purpose
¶17. Economics
¶18. Education
¶19. Environment
¶20. Epistemology: The Bahá'í Theory and Sources of Knowledge
¶21. Ethics
¶22. Family Life: Marriage, Divorce, and Sexuality
¶23. Fasting
¶24. Feasts, Holy Days, and the Calendar
¶25. Female Imagery / Maid of Heaven
¶26. Funds and the Huqúqu'lláh
¶27. Gender Issues and Equality
¶28. God, Concept of
¶29. Health, Healing, and Medicine
¶30. Hermeneutics and Interpretation
¶31. History and Historiography
¶32. Holy Places, Bahá'í (World Centre and the Arc)
¶33. Houses of Worship
¶34. Humanity: Its Nature and Purpose
¶35. Justice / Divine Justice
¶36. Law and Personal Conduct
¶37. Manifestations of God
¶38. Mysticism
¶39. New World Order
¶40. Peace and War
¶41. Persecution and Martyrdom
¶42. Philosophy
¶43. Pilgrimage
¶44. Pioneering
¶45. Politics
¶46. Prayer and Meditation
¶47. Principles, Bahá'í
¶48. Prophecy
¶48.1. Biblical and Islamic Prophecies
¶48.2. Prophecies in Hinduism and Buddhism
¶48.3. Native American Prophecies
¶48.4. Other Prophecies
¶49. Psychic Phenomena and the Occult
¶50. Psychology
¶51. Racial Diversity and Race Relations
¶52. Religion: Definition of
¶53. Religious Dialogue and Pluralism
¶53.1. Ahmadíyya
¶53.2. Buddhism
¶53.3. Christianity
¶53.4. Confucianism and Taoism
¶53.5. Hinduism
¶53.6. Islam and Sufism
¶53.7. Jainism
¶53.8. Judaism
¶53.9. Manichaeism
¶53.10. Mormonism
¶53.11. Native and "Primal" Religions
¶53.12. New Age Movements
¶53.13. Sabaeanism
¶53.14. Sikhism
¶53.15. Zoroastrianism
¶54. Revelation
¶55. Ritual Practices and Ceremonies
¶56. Sacred History: Progressive Revelation
¶57. Sacred Story (Mythology)
¶58. Scholarship and the Academy
¶59. Science and Religion
¶60. Scripture
¶61. Shoghi Effendi
¶62. Sin, Evil, and Satan
¶63. Social Order
¶64. The Spiritual Life
¶65. Tests, and Growth
¶66. Theology
¶67. Unity / Unity in Diversity
¶68. Work
¶i. Some Prefatory Notes and Considerations:
This guide is the product of years of work by a variety of people, and may
display consequent inconsistencies. We are gradually making it more
uniform as we revise it, but the sheer volume of articles and our attempt
to link all parts of the guide into one uniform presentation make it
unavoidable that there will be gaps. Below are the gaps we are aware
of.
* Where the writings of the primary figures are included in multiple
books, as they usually are, we have included some of the more common
sources but have made no attempt to be exhaustive. The exception is the
volume Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, which, containing all
of Bahá'u'lláh's translated writings--save parts of the
Kitáb-i-Aqdas, The Proclamation of
Bahá'u'lláh, and Bahá'í Prayers--is
the most complete single collection of Bahá'u'lláh's texts
in English. Since some instructors might wish to assign this one book and
others use individual texts instead (and since Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh neither contains an index nor is in REFER),
we have cross-referenced all of these citations.
* We have given some of the main scriptural citations for every topic, but
these are not and could not be complete: not only are the writings too
vast to cite every relevant quote, and not only are new translations, both
authoritative (done under the auspices of the Universal House of Justice)
and provisional (done by individuals) continually being produced, but not
all of the extant writings have even been archived yet.
* There are many academic and semi-academic journals which are both of
quite limited circulation and are somewhat obscure. We have not included
articles found in some of these partly because we sometimes could not find
them and partly because only the professional researcher will have access
to them. Indeed, even the most thorough of all bibliographies on the
Bahá'í Faith, William Collins' Bibliography of
English-Language Works on the Bábí and Bahá'í
Faiths 1844-1985, does not cite every article ever published.
* Many unpublished translations, articles, historical documents,
bibliographies, pilgrims' notes, and book reviews are available on the
internet. These have not been cited here. Please see "Description of
Bahá'í Internet Resources," below.
* Since this Guide has an index we have not extensively cross-referenced
topics. The index should be consulted because sometimes more than one
subject heading will include relevant information for any particular
topic. For ideas on what related topics to
look up, one can consult the sections given in the curriculum guides,
above, or the cross-referencing provided in the index.
* The guide is thorough, but not exhaustive. There are doubtless numerous
books which deserve to be listed that we either do not know of or have
overlooked. Recommendations for additions are
encouraged.
¶ii. Format of this
section
The format of entries in this section will, for the most part, follow the
following pattern. The presentation of certain subjects may depart
slightly from the following, for some entries will not feature all four of
these elements.
¶X. Subject Heading
¶X.1. Subject sub-heading (if applicable)
1- Brief definition of subject (if applicable).
2- Primary source writings: i.e., works of the Báb, Bahá'u'lláh, 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi, or the Universal House of Justice pertaining to the subject.*
3- References to the subject in the basic Bahá'í
textbooks. Books cited here are J. E. Esslemont's
Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era (5th ed.), Gloria
Faizi's The Bahá'í Faith, John Ferraby's All
Things Made New, William S. Hatcher and J. Douglas Martin's The
Bahá'í Faith, John Huddleston's The Earth is But One
Country, Moojan Momen's A Short Introduction to the
Bahá'í Faith, and Peter Smith's A Short History of
the Bahá'í Faith, (cited as Smith 1996) and
The Bábí and Bahá'í Religions (cited as
Smith 1987). Pages cited here supplement but are not identical with the
page
numbers offered in the indices of these books. Wendi Momen's A Basic
Bahá'í Dictionary and Glenn Cameron and Wendi Momen's
A Basic Bahá'í Chronology would also be useful to an
instructor or researcher.
4- Bibliographic notes of modern scholarship on the subject. This
latter section will, of course, be more temporally limited than the above.
That is, while the references in the above textbooks will remain useful
(indeed, Esslemont's book is now over seven decades old), the journal and book entries of contemporary
scholarship will only be as current as the latest edition of this
guide.
* It should be noted
that the edition of Lights of Guidance cited here, 2d revised and
enlarged edition 1988, differs in page and citation numbering from the
1st, 3d, and 4th editions. This edition was chosen to cite because it
seems to be the most commonly-owned one.
Annotated Bibliography of
Noteworthy Scholarship on the Bahá'í Faith
¶1. 'Abdu'l-Bahá
'Abdu'l-Bahá, the eldest son of Bahá'u'lláh, became
the "Center of the Covenant" following Bahá'u'lláh's death. He
is, to Bahá'ís, the perfect exemplar of human perfection: he was
human, unlike his father who held the dual station of Manifestation of God and
human, but he was the embodiment of all human perfections. His writings, though
not divinely revealed, are considered sacred scripture.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 278-81 (Book of the Covenant,
Tablet to the Land of Bá, also in Tablets of
Bahá'u'lláh revealed after the Kitáb-i-Aqdas
(henceforth "Tablets") 219-223 and 227-228). 'Abdu'l-Bahá's
Will and Testament of 'Abdu'l-Bahá gives some idea of the
suffering he endured as a result of the plots of his brothers. Shoghi Effendi's
section on 'Abdu'l-Bahá in Dispensation of
Bahá'u'lláh, in World Order of
Bahá'u'lláh, 131-39, is the authoritative statement of the
station of 'Abdu'l-Bahá. Lights of Guidance provides a variety of
notes on 'Abdu'l-Bahá, 484-88.
Esslemont, 51-70; 243-51 Huddleston, 204-14
Faizi, 18-22 Momen 126-7
Ferraby, 224-38 Smith 1987, 69-71, 73-4
Hatcher and Martin, 50-60 Smith 1996, 64-83
The life of 'Abdu'l-Bahá has been the focus of one biography, Balyuzi's
'Abdu'l-Bahá: Centre of the Covenant of
Bahá'u'lláh, a work that makes little effort to set
'Abdu'l-Bahá in the context of his times or to assess the role he played
in developing the Bahá'í community. 'Abdu'l-Bahá's station
is most clearly defined by Shoghi Effendi in World Order of
Bahá'u'lláh, 131-39. Numerous pilgrims' notes describe what
it was like to meet 'Abdu'l-Bahá, what he talked about, and how he lived
his life. Thornton Chase's In Galilee is perhaps the most analytical and
literate example of pilgrim's notes, but Julia M. Grundy's Ten Days in the
Light of 'Akká and Helen Goodall and Ella Goodall Cooper's Daily
Lessons received at 'Akká, January 1908 are also interesting and
useful. Myron Phelps' The Master in 'Akká (originally published
as The Life and Teachings of Abbas Effendi) offers a sympathetic
description of 'Abdu'l-Bahá and his teachings by a
non-Bahá'í. Juliet Thompson's Diary of Juliet Thompson
offers a glimpse not only of 'Abdu'l-Bahá but especially of the devotion
the Bahá'ís felt toward him, particularly the love and devotion
of Juliet Thompson. Memoirs of meeting 'Abdu'l-Bahá by Thornton Chase
and Juanita Storch have been published in World Order, 25.1 (Fall 1993).
Other relevant pilgrim's notes are listed in section ¶43.
Pilgrimage.
A detailed account of 'Abdu'l-Bahá's passing, by two Americans present,
is found in Florian and Grace Krug's "Accounts of the Passing of
'Abdu'l-Bahá," in World Order, 7.2 (Winter 1972-73). The entire
Fall 1971 issue of World Order (6.1) was devoted to articles on
'Abdu'l-Bahá's life as a commemoration of the fiftieth anniversary of
his passing.
¶1.1. 'Abdu'l-Bahá's Journeys in America and Europe
The 1909 overthrow of the Turkish government by the Young Turks ended
the reign of those responsible for the exile of Bahá'u'lláh's
family to 'Akká, and 'Abdu'l-Bahá was for the first time free to
leave Palestine. He quickly embarked on what would be a three-year voyage to
many Western countries, visiting Bahá'í communities and
delivering talks in numerous cities. In 1910 he set sail for Egypt, where he
remained for a year before traveling on to Europe. In 1912 he traveled across
America, and finally spent almost a year in Europe before returning to Egypt in
June 1913 and Haifa in December 1913.
Esslemont, 60-1 Momen, 126-7
Ferraby, 232-36 Smith 1987, 103-4
Hatcher and Martin, 56-8 Smith 1996, 79-82
Huddleston, 211-12
STUDIES
Several volumes collect some of 'Abdu'l-Bahá's talks in Europe, namely
Paris Talks and 'Abdu'l-Bahá in London. Most of his talks
in North America were collected and published as a single book titled The
Promulgation of Universal Peace.
Though much has been written on 'Abdu'l-Bahá's visits to America little
has addressed his travel in Europe, save pilgrim's notes such as The Diary
of Juliet Thompson. The most complete study of 'Abdu'l-Bahá's visit
to North America, Allan L. Ward's Two Hundred Thirty-Nine Days:
'Abdu'l-Bahá's Journey in America, is a chronicle of
'Abdu'l-Bahá's trip, but it makes little effort to analyze the trip's
impact on the Bahá'í community or on American culture. A shorter
summary of 'Abdu'l-Bahá's visit may be found in Hasan Balyuzi's
'Abdu'l-Bahá, chapters 12-18. Gary L. Morrison's
"'Abdu'l-Bahá and the Early American Bahá'ís," in World
Order, 6.3 (Spring 1972), though short, is a good analytical piece on
'Abdu'l-Bahá's visit, though it was written before the first critical
works on American Bahá'í history had been published, and thus
inevitably suffers from lack of context.
ACCOUNTS
Memoirs by Thornton Chase and Juanita Storch about 'Abdu'l-Bahá's visit
to North America, describing the impact he had on Bahá'ís, their
friends, and journalists, have been published in World Order, 25.1
(Fall, 1993). A series of short works on 'Abdu'l-Bahá's visits to
specific sites, containing newspaper articles, itineraries, and photographs as
well as transcriptions of his talks, include 'Abdu'l-Bahá in Canada,
Hussein Ahdieh and Eliane A. Hopson's 'Abdu'l-Bahá in New
York: The City of the Covenant, and the article "'Abdu'l-Bahá in
Chicago" in Bahá'í News, 558 (September 1977). The
Diary of Juliet Thompson also includes a wealth of information about his
visits to America, especially pages 223-395, and some of his time in Europe,
especially pages 147-222. Agnes Parsons' diary, edited by Richard Hollinger and
published as 'Abdu'l-Bahá in America: Agnes Parsons' Diary, and
the biography of Lua Getsinger, Lua Getsinger: Herald of the Covenant,
also cover much of the same ground.
EGYPT
Mirza Ahmad Sohrab provided a detailed record of three months of
Abdu'l-Bahá's time in Egypt in Abdul Baha in Egypt, in which he
includes a historical presentation of 'Abdu'l-Bahá's activities while
there as well as translations of his talks.
¶2. Administrative Order: History and Institutions
The Bahá'í Administrative Order is the
organizational system of the Bahá'í religion. It is divided into
two branches: "the Rulers" are legislative councils of nine members at local,
regional/national, and international levels who are democratically elected by
all believers; "the Learned" are individuals who function at local and
regional/national levels as advisory and inspirational leaders, are appointed
by "the Rulers," and have no individual executive authority.
Bahá'ís believe that, on the one hand, this arrangement combines
the best features of democratic, aristocratic, and monarchical institutions and
that, on the other hand, its unique arrangement of checks-and-balances--such as
consultation, prohibition on campaigning, and carefully-delineated jurisdiction
of legislative authority--and the well-defined spheres of each branch preserves
the administrative order from the potentially abusable features of common
democratic and monarchical institutions. The entire administrative order
derives directly from Bahá'u'lláh--Bahá'u'lláh
appointed 'Abdu'l-Bahá, 'Abdu'l-Bahá appointed Shoghi Effendi,
and Shoghi Effendi helped realize the establishment of the Universal House of
Justice. Recognizing and obeying the Manifestation of God for this day is an
aspect of the "Greater Covenant," and obedience to the institutions he
inaugurated--seen as the only means by which a peaceful world order can be
created--is an aspect of the "Lesser Covenant."
The Administrative Order evolved gradually. Bahá'u'lláh
established it by defining two institutions: the house of justice, a
council of nine or more individuals, in each locality and at the worldwide
level; and the Hands of the Cause of God, individuals
Bahá'u'lláh appointed to travel, teach the Bahá'í
Faith, and deepen the understanding of the Bahá'ís. No houses of
justice were established in Bahá'u'lláh's lifetime.
'Abdu'l-Bahá temporarily changed the name of the institution of the
house of justice to spiritual assembly so as to avoid judicial or
political implications, and oversaw the establishment of the first spiritual
assemblies in Iran, the United States, Egypt, and India. He also defined the
complete organizational system in his will and testament: local spiritual
assemblies, national spiritual assemblies elected by delegates from local
communities, and a Universal House of Justice elected by the members of the
various National Spiritual Assemblies. Shoghi Effendi established this system
between 1921 and 1957, making it possible to elect the Universal House of
Justice in 1963.
Shoghi Effendi appointed additional Hands of the Cause of God and authorized
the Hands to select Auxiliary Board members to serve them regionally.
The House of Justice cannot appoint Hands of the Cause and thus has replaced
that institution with another that carries out some of the same functions,
called the Counselors. The Counselors are appointed to five-year terms,
whereas the Hands were appointed for life. Most Counselors serve in large
jurisdictional areas--the world is divided into five of these regions, called
"continents." These Continental Counselors appoint Auxiliary Board members, who
in turn appoint assistants, who work with individual local
Bahá'í communities. There are also nine "International
Counselors" who serve at the Bahá'í World Centre in a body called
the International Teaching Centre.
In 1997 the Universal House of Justice added a fourth governing body of the
"Institution of the Rulers," called regional councils. The regional
council lies between the local and the national spiritual assemblies; the
members of the former elect its members though secret ballot, while the latter
institution determines the boundaries of its jurisdiction. Regional councils
report to and are subordinate to the national spiritual assembly. Since the
insitution is new, its authority and repsonsibility are still being defined.
Shoghi Effendi, Call to the Nations, 36-44, provides a detailed
discussion of the differences between the Bahá'í administrative
order and the organizational systems of secular governments and previous
religions. Shoghi Effendi wrote a series of books that describe the features of
Bahá'í administration, among them Bahá'í
Administration, Advent of Divine Justice, and World Order of
Bahá'u'lláh. Pages 143-57 of the latter work provide an
essential description of the Administrative Order. The guidance of
'Abdu'l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi, and the Universal House of Justice about
Bahá'í organization, especially at the local level, has been
compiled into a single work titled Developing Distinctive
Bahá'í Communities. A compilation of Bahá'í
scriptures called The Continental Board of Counselors provides a clear
picture of this branch of the administrative order. 'Abdu'l-Bahá
discusses it in Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá,
77-89. Lights of Guidance includes comments on a variety of
administrative topics, 1-94, 164-75, 309-38.
Esslemont, 131-32, 264-73 Momen, 68-73, 75-7, 80
Ferraby, 256-75 Smith 1987, 120-26
Hatcher and Martin, 133-36, 144-51 Smith 1996, 91-2, 94, 118
Huddleston, 110-14
One of the only general works on the administrative order is Eunice Braun's
The March of the Institutions: A Commentary on the Interdependence of Rulers
and Learned, which outlines the structure of the administrative order and
details the interrelationships of its bodies. Adib Taherzadeh wrote an
inspirational and historical work on the covenant and its relation to the
administrative order, The Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh. A
shorter analysis comparing Western versus Bahá'í types of
governance is Arash Abizadeh's "Liberal Democracy and the Bahá'í
Administrative Order," in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 2.3
(1990). Deepen magazine has begun a series of articles which will
discuss the history and day-to-day functioning of the United States
Bahá'í National Center; first is Deepen 10.4.1 (1996),
"The Bahá'í National Center: part one: Forty-Nine Years, a
personal perspective," followed by Deepen 11.4.2 (1996), "The
Bahá'í National Center: part two: The Establishment of the
Bahá'í Faith in America."
¶2.1. Establishment of the Administrative Order, 1921-37
A history of this period is largely identical to a history of the life and work
of Shoghi Effendi. To him fell the responsibility of designing and implementing
many of the fine details of the administrative organization and fine-tuning the
Bahá'í world community and its understanding of the Faith.
Many of Shoghi Effendi's writings were letters to individual communities
responding to their administrative concerns and guiding their development. Some
of these have been collected in Bahá'í Administration:
Selected Messages 1922-1932, and Principles of Bahá'í
Administration: A Compilation. He also alludes to the administrative
difficulties in the United States in World Order of
Bahá'u'lláh, 3-5.
Esslemont, 179-81; 264-73 Huddleston, 214-19
Ferraby, 256-9 Smith 1987, 120-22
Hatcher and Martin, 66-68 Smith 1996, 107-9
Loni Bramson-Lerche has published on the period in "Some Aspects of the
Development of Bahá'í Administration in America, 1922-1936," in
Moojan Momen, Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í
History, volume 1, followed by her "Some Aspects of the Establishment of
the Guardianship," in Studies in Honor of the Late Hasan M. Balyuzi: Studies
in the Bábí and Bahá'í Religions, volume 5.* The period is also outlined in Eunice
Braun, From Strength to Strength, 5-8. One can also glean some
information from Gayle Morrison's To Move the World: Louis Gregory and the
Advancement of Racial Unity in America, 153-78. Adib Taherzadeh's The
Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh provides some information, especially
in chapter 26. Many passing mentions of the establishing of the administrative
order can be found in Richard Hollinger, ed., Community Histories: Studies
in Bábí and Bahá'í Religions, volume 6.
* The inconsistency of the titles of this
series is not an error. Volumes 1-4 of the series are titled Studies in
Bábí and Bahá'í History, and volumes 5-7 are
titled Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í
Religions.
¶2.2. The Guardianship
Bahá'u'lláh anticipated the institution of the Guardian in the
Kitáb-i-Aqdas, but it was left to 'Abdu'l-Bahá to clarify
its nature and appoint Shoghi Effendi as the first Guardian. To the
Guardianship was assigned the province of authoritatively interpreting the
Bahá'í scriptures, appointing members of the branch of the
Learned, and overseeing the promulgation and protection of the Faith. The
Guardian had no legislative power.
Lights of Guidance includes a section explaining the institution of the
Guardianship, pages 309-14.
Esslemont, 130, 261-3, 284-5 Huddleston, 214-15, 222
Ferraby, 256, 260-3 Smith 1987, 115, 130, 132, 134-5
Hatcher and Martin, 133-36 Smith 1996, 101, 106
Though much has been written on the first Guardian, Shoghi Effendi, almost no
studies have been devoted to the institution itself. The Universal House of
Justice has addressed certain aspects of the institution in "Comments on the
Guardianship and The Universal House of Justice," in Messages from the
Universal House of Justice 1968-1973. The decision that no additional
Guardians can be appointed is also given by the Universal House of Justice in
Wellspring of Guidance: Messages from the Universal House of Justice
1936-1968, 11, 81-91. Both of these letters have been reprinted in Adib
Taherzadeh's The Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh, in an appendix
called "The Guardianship and the Universal House of Justice." Brent Poirier has
examined this issue in "The Flow of Divine Authority: Scriptural authority for
the Universal House of Justice to function infallibly without the presence of a
Guardian," in Deepen Magazine, No. 9 (1996), reprinted in The
American Bahá'í, August 1, 1996, pull-out section. Mentions
of the institution of the Guardianship, its founding by 'Abdu'l-Bahá,
and its ending with the death of Shoghi Effendi can be found scattered
throughout The Ministry of the Custodians 1957-1963. The essays in
Richard Hollinger, ed., Community Histories: Studies in Bábí
and Bahá'í History, volume 6, contain many passing references
to the institution of the Guardian.
¶2.3. Rulers and Learned
Bahá'u'lláh, in describing the organization of his religion,
refers to the "rulers and learned" several times. This phrase has come to
capture the two halves of Bahá'í organization: the elected
governing bodies, which function as a collective and have the authority to make
major decisions, and the appointed Counselors, their Auxiliary Board members
and their assistants, who primarily advise, consult with, and encourage
Bahá'í communities, and who act as individuals, not as collective
groups. The application of Bahá'u'lláh's term to these two
institutions was made by the Universal House of Justice.
Bahá'u'lláh refers to the Rulers and the Learned in Writings
of Bahá'u'lláh, 279 (Kitáb-i-Ahd in
Tablets 219-223). The Universal House of Justice explained further in
"Elucidation of the Nature of the Continental Boards of Counselors," in
Messages of the Universal House of Justice, 1968-1973, 91-95.
Esslemont, 263, 285 Smith 1987, 134-5
Hatcher and Martin, 133 Smith 1996, 118
Momen, 71-2
Also useful is the compilation of Bahá'í scriptures called The
Continental Board of Counselors. "The Continental Board of Counselors: Its
Role and Station: A talk by the Hand of the Cause William Sears," transcribed
and printed in Deepen, 9.3/4 (1996), describes some of the basic
functions of the institution of the Counselors.
¶2.4. The Interregnum and Election of the Universal House of
Justice (1957-63)
Shoghi Effendi's death on 4 November 1957 was completely unexpected and proved
to be a great shock to the Bahá'í world. Bahá'ís
had expected Shoghi Effendi to be only the first of a line of Guardians, but
Shoghi Effendi had appointed no successor. He had appointed Hands of the Cause
of God, however, and one month before his death he wrote a long letter about
their importance, calling them the "chief stewards" of the Bahá'í
administrative order. After Shoghi Effendi's passing, the Hands met and decided
that the best course to pursue was to elect the Universal House of Justice, the
supreme governing body of the Bahá'í Faith, in 1963, when the Ten
Year Crusade--Shoghi Effendi's plan to take the Bahá'í Faith to
most of the world--would end.
A full compilation of texts relating to this period, Establishment of the
Universal House of Justice, has been included in Compilation of
Compilations, volume I.
Ferraby, 261-3 Smith 1987, 128-32
Hatcher and Martin, 70-2 Smith 1996, 112-5
Huddleston, 221-23
No history of the period has yet been written, though many of the letters
written by the Hands were published (see The Bahá'í World,
vol. 13, 1954-1963, 333-78) and a comprehensive collection of their letters
called The Ministry of the Custodians 1957-1963 is available. Adib
Taherzadeh discusses concerns of this time period in The Covenant of
Bahá'u'lláh, chapters 34-36.
¶2.5. Houses of Justice
Bahá'u'lláh described a system in which every community
containing at least nine adult Bahá'ís would have a "House of
Justice," an elected body of nine or more individuals who would exercise
spiritual and administrative authority over their jurisdiction. While the Faith
is still young and not always well known to the outside world, it has been
deemed prudent to refer to the Houses of Justice instead as spiritual
assemblies to help prevent possible assumptions about their having a
political function: the local Houses of Justice are referred to as Local
Spiritual Assemblies and the regional/national governing councils as National
Spiritual Assemblies. The only level of governance which currently rules under
its title of a House of Justice is the international one, the Universal House
of Justice, the highest governing body in the Bahá'í world. As
the only remaining recipient of conferred infallibility, it is the point of
obedience of all Bahá'ís. Bahá'ís write to the
Universal House of Justice when they wish guidance on certain matters or
clarifications of Bahá'í teachings; though the Universal House of
Justice does not have the authority to interpret the sacred writings, they do
have the facilities to search the vast archives of the original writings to
find guidance from one of the central figures* or Shoghi Effendi. The spiritual assemblies do not enjoy conferred infallibility, and this status will not
change upon their eventually assuming the title "Houses of Justice."
Lights of Guidance, 314-19.
Esslemont, 129-30, 272-3 Huddleston, 114
Hatcher and Martin, 59, 144-51, 134-5 Smith 1996, 73
No significant scholarship has been produced on the institution of the
Universal House of Justice. However, many of its writings have been published,
either as the compilations of its letters Messages from the Universal House
of Justice 1968-1973, Wellspring of Guidance: Messages from the
Universal House of Justice 1963-1968, A Wider Horizon: Selected Messages
of the Universal House of Justice 1983-1992 and Third Epoch of the
Formative Age: Messages from the Universal House of Justice, 1963-86, or as
excerpted in the many topical compilations of Bahá'í scripture. A
significant document was the 1985 statement The Promise of World Peace.
Eunice Braun has summarized the first ten years of the history of the Universal
House of Justice in From Strength to Strength 55-64, and Adib Taherzadeh
briefly discusses the institution in The Covenant of
Bahá'u'lláh, chapter 35.
* The term "central figures" is a standard
Bahá'í term for the Báb, Bahá'u'lláh, and
<Abdu'l-Bahá. This is in contrast to the term "primary figures,"
which in this guide refers to the above three plus Shoghi Effendi.
¶3. Afterlife
The Bahá'í religion states that the soul is immortal, continuing
to exist after the death of the body. The soul, according to
'Abdu'l-Bahá, has the powers of imagination, thought, comprehension, and
memory. Bahá'í scripture states that it consists of divine
attributes, and a major purpose of life is to develop and express these
attributes. Such development, the achievement of faith in God's latest
Manifestation, and one's deeds, together define one's spiritual state after
death. The next world is seen as a numberless series of spiritual planes or
kingdoms, rising ever closer to God. The Bahá'í religion does not
believe in a literal heaven or hell, but sees heaven and hell as referring to
the soul's spiritual proximity to or distance from God. It also rejects
reincarnation, believing instead in the endless advancement and progress of the
soul from one plane of existence to another.
Scriptural discussions include Writings of Bahá'u'lláh,
453-56 (Gleanings, LXXIX-LXXXI) and 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Selections
from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá, 183-201; Some Answered
Questions, 223-43. A compilation of the Bahá'í writings on
life after death has been assembled by Hushidar Motlagh and is titled Unto
Him Shall We Return. Lights of Guidance discusses reincarnation, 536-8.
Esslemont, 188-95 Hatcher and Martin, 100, 104-06
Faizi, 59-62 Huddleston, 57-8
Ferraby, 145-51 Momen, 110-14
An excellent discussion of the Bahá'í concept of the afterlife
may be found in John Hatcher, The Purpose of Physical Reality, chapter
4, "The Eternal Consequences of the Physical Experience." Many popular books
and collections of scripture have been produced, including Alan Bryson's
Light After Death, subtitled A comparison of the
Near-Death-Experience and the teachings of the Bahá'í Faith on
life after death, which presents many quotations from primary
Bahá'í sources, and Farnaz Ma'súmián's Life
After Death: Religious Views and Near-Death Experience a more comprehensive
compilation of texts from all the world's major religions in the topic of the
next world and of this-world encounters with it. Hushidar Motlagh compiled some
relevant Bahá'í texts in The Glorious Journey to God:
Selections from Sacred Scriptures on the Afterlife. Statements on
reincarnation are included in Lights of Guidance, 536-8.
¶4. Agriculture
In the "Tablet of the World," Bahá'u'lláh lists the things
"conducive to the advancement of mankind." He writes that "special regard must
be paid to agriculture," which "preceedeth" in importance elements such as the
Lesser Peace, world fellowship, education, and a univeral language. (Tablets
of Bahá'u'lláh, 90) Bahá'ís believe that
agriculture is far more than simple farming, for it includes a whole spectrum
of environmental, economic, and spiritual concerns relating to food and the
ecological sustainable development of the planet.
Lights of Guidance, 547, Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh,
90
Ferraby, 102 Momen, 45, 64
Huddleston, 84
Iraj Poostchi's Agriculture Beyond 2000: A Bahá'í
Perspective is the longest study of agriculture yet released. Paul Hanley
argues for the often under-estimated importance of agriculture in "Agriculture:
A Fundamental Principle," in Journal of Bahá'í Studies,
3.1 (1990-1991).
¶5. Art, Literature, Music, Architecture
The Bahá'í religion does not advocate a particular kind of art,
but Bahá'ís who are artists have made various contributions to
the art world, and have a unique perspective on art because of their religious
beliefs. In its brief history the Bahá'í Faith has made some
significant and unique contributions to the world of architecture through the
construction of its Houses of Worship and the buildings of its World Centre;
for details, see the entries for Houses of Worship and Holy Places.
A short compilation of scriptural texts on the arts, simply titled The
Arts, is in Compilation of Compilations, volume I.
Esslemont, 153 Huddleston, 83, 172
Hatcher and Martin, 179, 181-84
One of the only compilations of original Bahá'í literature and
artwork is Crystallizations: 20 Works by Bahá'í Artists,
edited by Ross Woodman. This includes Juliet Thompson's dramatical play
I, Mary Magdalene, essays, fiction, some visual art, and much poetry.
Another source for Bahá'í visual and poetic arts is World
Order magazine, which includes selections of original work in every issue.
Most issues of the Bahá'í World up through volume XVIII
include a final section of music, hymns, and poetry. Books about specific
topics, such as on the painter Mark Tobey or the potter Bernard Leach, also
contain samples of artwork.
GENERAL
A good overview of Bahá'í practice of, varieties of, and
teachings on art is Ann Boyles' "The Language of the Heart: Arts in the
Bahá'í World Community," in The Bahá'í World: An
International Record, 1994-95.<*
Inder Manocha published some introductory ruminations on the nature of
Bahá'í art as "Bahá'í Art: Fact or Fiction?" in
Bahá'í Studies Review, 3.1 (1993). The most extensive
sourcebook on Bahá'í art is Michael Fitzgerald, ed., The
Creative Circle: Art, Literature, and Music in Bahá'í
Perspective, a collection of essays on art by Bahá'ís. Glen
A. Eyford's "Aesthetics and Spiritual Education," in World Order, 14.1
(Fall, 1979) explores the importance of aesthetic experience, symbol, and myth
to the communication of spiritual ideas. Ludwig Tuman's "Toward Critical
Foundations of a World Culture of the Arts," in World Order, 9.4 (Summer
1975), later expanded into the book Mirror of the Divine: Art in the
Bahá'í World Community, both explore the role of the arts and
the artist in society, their relationship to society's worldview, and their
potential in advancing the world community's future spiritual attainments. Anne
Gordon Atkinson briefly examines the history of the presentation of and
participation by women in art in "Women in Art," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 4.2 (June-Sept. 1991).
LITERARY ART
Eno Marconi's "Bahá'í Theatre?" in World Order, 8.4
(Summer 1974) discusses the Bahá'í teachings relevant to
theatrical productions. Elham Afnan examines Bahá'í attitudes
towards war and visions of peace as they relate to the modern novel in "The
Good of the World and the Happiness of the Nations: A Study of Modern Utopian
and Dystopian Literature," in Journal of Bahá'í Studies,
1.4 (1988-1989). Her "'Abdu'l-Bahá and Ezra Pound's Circle," in
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 6.2 (June-Sept. 1994), is a
brief discussion of the Bahá'í Faith and some primary literary
figures of the early twentieth century. One of the only examinations of
Bahá'í literary expression and aesthetics is Suheil Bushrui's
The Style of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas. John Hatcher's The Ocean of
His Words: A Reader's Guide to the Art of Bahá'u'lláh
presents the writings of Bahá'u'lláh as literature and analyzes
his use of metaphor and the structure, and style of his writings.
POETRY
Poetry is one of the most practiced art forms in the Bahá'í
world, a fact that Shirin Sabri discusses in "The Purpose of Poetry," in
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 1.1 (1988-1989). David L.
Erickson and Jack McLean have each published comments on this article in the
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 2.1 (1989-1990). There is a
biography of Robert Hayden (poet of the United States Library of Congress, and
a Bahá'í) by John Hatcher titled From the Auroral
Darkness, aspects of which he has summarized in "Racial Identity and the
Patterns of Consolidation in the Poetry of Robert Hayden," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 3.2 (1990-1991). The Fall 1981 issue
of World Order (16.1) was devoted to a series of retrospective essays on
Robert Hayden; the Summer 1983 issue (17.4) was devoted to articles about
Robert Hayden and contains a selection of poems. Several anthologies of poetry
have been published by the Association for Bahá'í Studies:
"Response to Revelation: Poetry by Bahá'ís"
(Bahá'í Studies, 7); "Abiding Silence: An Anthology of
Poems in Honour of the Bahá'ís of Iran" (Bahá'í
Studies, 15) edited by Shirin Sabri; and Bahá'í
Studies, volume 10, which consists of a collection of four essays by
Bahá'ís about the artist and artistic expression. There are
numerous volumes of poetry published by Roger White, such as Another Song,
Another Season: Poems and Portrayals; Occasions of Grace: More Poems and
Portrayals; and The Witness of Pebbles. One of the
Bahá'í Faith's more famous artists was the preeminent British
potter Bernard Leach, who was also a very good poet and visual artist; the most
recent of his many collections of poetry and drawings is Drawings, Verse,
and Belief.
VISUAL ART
Little work has been done on the visual arts. One article is Ross Woodman's
"Bahá'u'lláh's Influence on the New York School of Painting: The
'Unapprehended Inspiration' of Newman and Rothko," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 4.1 (Mar.-June 1991), in which Woodman argues
for indirect Bahá'í influences on the work of these two painters
and even mentions that Mark Tobey, the renowned abstract painter and a
Bahá'í, should be seen as the founder of the New York School.
Books of Mark Tobey's art that contain discussions of his participation in the
Bahá'í Faith include Arthur Dahl's Mark Tobey: Art and Belief,
Eliza E. Rathbone's Mark Tobey: City Paintings, the National
Spiritual Assembly of the United States' Mark Tobey: paintings from the
collection of Joyce and Arthur Dahl, an article on one series of his
paintings, Julie Badiee's "Mark Tobey's City Paintings: Meditations on an Age
of Transition," in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 1.4
(1988-1989), and Graham Hassall's essay "The Influences on Mark Tobey," in
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 4.1 (Mar. 1986). Further,
the Spring 1977 issue of World Order (11.3) was devoted to a series of
retrospective essays about Tobey and his art. Much of the focus of visual arts
in Islam was on calligraphy; one of Bahá'u'lláh's followers,
Mishkín-Qalam, excelled in the art. An article by Julie Oeming
Badiee and Heshmatollah Badiee, "The Calligraphy of
Mishkín-Qalam," in Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 3.4 (Dec. 1990-Mar. 1991), discusses his life and use of symbolism
and includes some beautiful examples of his art. Jalalíyyíh
Quinn's notes explaining her series of paintings currently on display at the
office of the Association of Bahá'í Studies in Ottawa, "Notes to
the Paintings in Honor of the Vision of Shoghi Effendi," in The Vision of
Shoghi Effendi," includes color prints of five of these paintings.
MUSIC
Music is regarded with great esteem in the Bahá'í writings, and
Bahá'í musicians such as Dizzy Gillespie and the songwriting team
Seals and Crofts have done much to popularize and promote the Faith.
See Kitáb-i-Aqdas paragraph 51 and Note 79. The most complete
collection of quotations on music, simply titled Music, is found in
Compilation of Compilations, volume II. See also Lights of
Guidance, 410-13.
Adib Taherzadeh discusses music in Revelation of
Bahá'u'lláh, volume 3, 367-9. Mentions of and essays on music
can be found in The Creative Circle: Art, Literature, and Music in
Bahá'í Perspective, a collection of essays on art by
Bahá'ís. Kerry Hart's "The Role of Music in the Advancement of
Civilization," in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 2.1
(1989-1990), examines the effects of music on cultural and spiritual growth.
Margaret L. Caton presents a picture of the place of music in
'Abdu'l-Bahá's cultural surroundings through an examination of the
Bahá'í impact on one famous Middle Eastern musician in
"Bahá'í Influences on Mírzá 'Abdu'lláh,
Qájár Court Musician and Master of the Radíf," in
Juan R. Cole and Moojan Momen, From Iran East and West, Studies in
Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume 2. R. Jackson
Armstrong-Ingram's Music, Devotions, and
Mashriqu'l-Adhkár: Studies in
Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume 4 contains
detailed histories both of American Bahá'í hymnology and of the
use of music in the houses of worship, as well as a detailed history of its
architectural design. Robert Stockman offers differing perspectives of many
topics in this book in his "Review of Music, Devotions, and
Mashriqu'l-Adhkár," in
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 1.2 (1988-1989).
ARCHITECTURE
Besides Music, Devotions, and
Mashriqu'l-Adhkár, other
articles that discuss architecture and the Faith are Leo R. Zrudlo's "The
Missing Dimension in the Built Environment: A Challenge for the 21st Century,"
in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 3.1 (1990-1991), which
asserts the lack of a spiritual dimension in much of modern architecture. Duane
L. Herrman's "Houses as Perfect as Possible," in World Order, 26.1 (Fall
1994), and Tom Kubala's "Architectural Implications of the Bahá'í
Community," in World Order, 9.1 (Fall 1974), describe the aesthetic
styles of the Bahá'í houses of worship. Ugo Giachery's biography
of Shoghi Effendi, Shoghi Effendi: Recollections, includes a lengthy
section on the Bahá'í World Center and its design considerations
and describes at length the actual construction of some of its buildings and
gardens. A discussion of the spiritual significances of art, complete with
numerous photographs of Bahá'í architecture, has been published
by Faríburz Sahbá, an architect and Project Manager for the Mount
Carmel Bahá'í Projects, as "Art and Architecture: A
Bahá'í Perspective," in Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 7:3 (March-June 1997).
* Subtitles of The Bahá'í
World are inconsistent; they go by The Bahá'í World: A
Biennial International Record, The Bahá'í World: An International
Record, or just The Bahá'í World.
¶6. The Báb and the Bábí
Movement, 1844-62
The movement founded by Siyyid 'Alí Muhammad of
Shíráz became known as the Bábí Movement, or
Babism, after his assumed title, the Báb, "Gate" or "Door." The
Báb made a series of claims to religious leadership, first as a
"báb," or representative to the hidden Imám, then as the
Qá'im, the Imám himself, and finally as an independent Prophet.
He emphasized repeatedly that he was but the forerunner of "He whom God shall
make manifest," Man yuzhiruhu'lláh. In 1863
Bahá'u'lláh claimed that he was this figure.
Bahá'ís view the Báb as being a harbinger, a figure sent
to tear down entrenched religious beliefs and pave the way for the renewal of
civilization brought by Bahá'u'lláh.
Bahá'í sources treat the Báb and his movement in great
depth. Chief among these is Bahá'u'lláh's
Kitáb-i-Íqán (Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh, 63-155), which he wrote before his own
declaration, ostensibly for the purpose of defending the truth of the
Báb's claims. The major events of the movement are vividly described in
Nabíl-i-Zarandí's Dawn-Breakers and Shoghi Effendi's
God Passes By. Bahá'ís view the former of these very
highly, for it was commissioned and partially read by Bahá'u'lláh
himself. Finally, 'Abdu'l-Bahá himself wrote a short history of the
Bábí movement entitled A Traveler's Narrative Written to
Illustrate the Episode of the Báb. Shoghi Effendi summarized and
elucidated the Bahá'í understanding of the Báb's station
in The Dispensation of Bahá'u'lláh, reprinted in The
World Order of Bahá'u'lláh. See notes in Lights of
Guidance, 469-71.
Esslemont, 11-22 Huddleston, 183-88
Ferraby, 193-97 Momen, 115-18
Hatcher and Martin, 10-27 Smith 1987, 56
¶6.1. The Báb: Early Life and Prophetic Career*
Much primary-source information on the Báb is presented in
Nabíl-i-Zarandí's The Dawn-Breakers, 'Abdu'l-Bahá's
A Traveller's Narrative, and Shoghi Effendi's God Passes By.
Esslemont, 11-18 Momen, 116-17
Ferraby, 186-99, 201-02 Smith 1987, 13-30
Hatcher and Martin, 6-9, 18-19 Smith 1996, 19-25, 27-31
Huddleston, 177-90
BIOGRAPHY
The only systematic biography of the Báb written according to the
standards of modern scholarship is Abbas Amanat's Resurrection and
Renewal, particularly chapters 3, 4, 5, and 9. A useful biography is
Balyuzi's The Báb. Also useful is Stephen Lambden's "An Episode
in the Childhood of the Báb," in Peter Smith, In Iran, Studies in
Bábí and Bahá'í Religions, volume 3 (reprinted
from Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 1.4 (March 1983)).
Kalimát Press' The Martyrdom of the Báb: A
Compilation, brings together the Bahá'í scriptural accounts
and a few eyewitness accounts of the Báb's execution. Descriptions of
his execution can also be found in a collection of original accounts collected
and edited by Firuz Kazemzadeh titled "The Báb: Accounts of His
Martyrdom," in World Order, 8.1 (Fall 1973). Moojan Momen examines the
significances of the principal confrontations between the Bábís
and their opponents in "The Bábí Upheavals 1848-1853," in
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 4.2 (Jan. 1990). He further
examines the demographics of the early Bábí community in "The
Social Basis of the Bábí Upheavals," in International Journal
of Middle East Studies 14 (1983) and "The Social Location of the
Bábí Movement: A Preliminary Note," in Bahá'í
Studies Bulletin, 3.3 (September 1985). Peter Smith provides estimates of
Bábí and Bahá'í populations in Iran from the late
1840s-1979 in his dissertation A Sociological Study of the
Bábí and Bahá'í Religions; the relevant section
is amended and reprinted as "A Note on Bábí and
Bahá'í Numbers in Iran," in Bahá'í Studies
Bulletin, 1.4 (1983), and also in Iranian Studies 17.2-3 (1984)
Contemporary Western descriptions of the Báb have been published in
Momen, The Bábí and Bahá'í Religions, 1844-1944:
Some Contemporary Western Accounts. Seena Fazel briefly discusses and
reprints "The First Western Language Encyclopedia Article on the
Bábí Religion" in Bahá'í Studies Bulletin,
5.3-6.1 (June 1991). The Encyclopedia Iranica and the Encyclopedia of
Islam both have excellent articles on the Báb.
THOUGHT
MacEoin's "Hierarchy, Authority, and Eschatology in Early Bábí
Thought," in Peter Smith, In Iran, Studies in Bábí and
Bahá'í Religions, volume 3, offers a variety of insights into
the Báb's theology and discusses the gradually-increasing stages of the
Báb's religious claims and the eschatological significances of them.
Todd Lawson discusses similar topics, though with a more theological focus, in
"The Terms "Remembrance" (dhikr) and "Gate"
(báb) in the Báb's Commentary on the Sura of Joseph," in
Moojan Momen, Studies in Honor of the Late Hasan M. Balyuzi: Studies in the
Bábí and Bahá'í Religions, volume 5. Another
short but valuable study of the Báb's theology is Lawson's "The
Structure of Existence in the Báb's Tafsír and the Perfect Man
Motif," in Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 6.2-3 (February 1992).
MacEoin's Rituals in Babism and Baha'ism provides a comprehensive
discussion of Bábí praxis, though its textual focus void of
anthropological considerations lends it a somewhat suspect relevance.
(Christopher Buck has offered a Bahá'í response to the latter in
his "Review of Denis MacEoin's Rituals in Babism and Baha'ism" in the
International Journal of Middle East Studies, 28.3 [1996].)
* The scholar who has published the most work
on the Bábí movement thus far is Denis MacEoin. This requires a
brief note. MacEoin's work as a whole tends to be academic and penetrating, and
is a very valuable resource. However, he has an open bias against aspects of
the Bahá'í Faith which can occasionally color his scholarship. A
number of exchanges between Bahá'í academics and MacEoin on this
and related issues have been published in a variety of journals. MacEoin has
honestly admitted that his work could be affected by his bias, and even that he
sometimes writes in "a deliberate attempt to stimulate controversy" ("A
Critique of Moojan Momen's Response to my `Problems of Scholarship in a
Bahá'í Context,'" in Bahá'í Studies Bulletin,
1.4 [June, 1983] 69). MacEoin's explanation, as given here and elsewhere,
is that he is simply more honest about a facet of any and every scholar's work,
namely his or her (usually unconscious) preconceptions.
¶6.2. The Báb's Teachings: Sources and Historical
Context
The only book of writings of the Báb available in English is
Selections from the Writings of the Báb. The Arabic and Persian
Bayáns and The Book of Seven Proofs are available in French
translation by A.L.M. Nicolas. See part two of the bibliography "Writings of
the Báb," below.
Esslemont, 19-22 Huddleston, 175-8
Faizi, 3-7 Smith 1987, 31-47
Ferraby, 199-201 Smith 1996, 27-9, 35-8
GENERAL
E. G. Browne was the first English-speaking scholar to study seriously about
the Bábí movement and translate a significant portion of the
Báb's writings. Most of his work, though now quite dated, is still a
valuable resource. Of especial note is his translation of 'Abdu'l-Bahá's
A Traveller's Narrative. Following the heavily-footnoted translation,
Browne includes over 250 pages of detailed notes about notable figures, events,
and texts relevant to Bábí history. These are only included in
the original 1891 edition and its 1930 reprint; the 1980 edition by the
Bahá'í Publishing Trust contains none of Browne's copious notes
and footnotes. Moojan Momen has compiled many of Browne's writings in his
Selections from the Writings of E. G. Browne on the Bábí and
Bahá'í Religions. The largest effort to set the Báb's
teachings in historical context is Amanat's Resurrection and Renewal,
particularly chapter 3. Denis MacEoin has published extensively on Babism,
including The Sources for Early Bábí Doctrine and History,
a hundred-page summary of the writings of the Báb in the approximate
order they were composed. The book also has an excellent bibliography,
including a listing of all the known Bábí manuscripts and the
archives that contains them. Momen's "Early Relations Between Christian
Missionaries and the Bábí and Bahá'í Communities,"
in Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í History,
volume 1, addresses the reaction of Christian contemporaries to and their
acceptance of the Bab.
SHAYHKISM
The fullest studies of the relation between the Báb's thought and his
Shaykhí background are the doctoral dissertations of Denis
MacEoin, From Shaykhism to Babism: A
Study in Charismatic Renewal in Shí'i Islam, and
Vahid Rafati, The Development of
Shaykhi Thought in
Shi'i Islam, especially chapters 6 and 7. A shortened
version of the latter has been published under the same title in Heshmat
Moayyad, ed., The Bahá'í Faith and Islam. MacEoin's "Early
Shaykhí Reactions to the Báb and His Claims," in
Moojan Momen, Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í
History, volume 1, discusses the degree to which the Báb's
Shaykhí contemporaries did and did not accept his claims.
Todd Lawson's "Interpretation as Revelation: the Qur'án Commentary of
the Báb" in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 2.4
(1989-1990), an abridgment of portions of his doctoral dissertation, The
Qur'án Commentary of Sayyid 'Alí Muhammad
Shírází, the Báb, discusses
the early thought of the Báb and also serves to locate it somewhat in
its Shaykhí background.
For a listing of original and secondary works about the Báb, his
writings, and his community, in English, Persian, Arabic, French, Russian, and
other languages, Moojan Momen's The Bábí and
Bahá'í Religions: Some Contemporary Western Accounts has an
excellent bibliography.
¶6.3. The Bábí Community
The best effort to examine the Bábí movement from the point of
view of sociology, anthropology, and critical historical study, is Amanat's
Resurrection and Renewal, particularly chapters 6, 7, and 8. A
sociological study of the resources available to the Bábí
movement is presented in Peter Smith's "The Bábí Movement: A
Resource Mobilization Perspective," in Peter Smith, In Iran, Studies in
Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume 3. The doctoral
dissertations of Denis MacEoin, From
Shaykhism to Babism: A Study in
Charismatic Renewal in Shí'i Islam, and Vahid
Rafati, The Development of Shaykhi
Thought in Shi'i Islam, are fairly useful for
understanding the forces that helped shape Babism. Moojan Momen's "Early
Relations Between Christian Missionaries and the Bábí and
Bahá'í Communities," in Moojan Momen, Studies in
Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume 1, provides
some information on the Western reactions to the Bábí movement.
This work has been expanded in Moojan Momen, The Bábí and
Bahá'í Religions, 1844-1944: Some Contemporary Western Accounts.
The latter has an extensive and excellent bibliography of recent as well as
classic studies on Babism. MacEoin's The Sources for Early
Bábí Doctrine and History contains a detailed section
describing all known manuscripts by the Báb's followers and their
contents; another section gives all histories of the Bábí
movement. His "Divisions and Authority Claims in Babism (1850-1866)," in
Studia Iranica 18:1 (1989) explores some of the political dynamics of
the early community.
¶7. Background of the Bahá'í Faith: Islam, Shaykhism,
and Iran
Bahá'ís often describe the relationship between Islam and the
Bahá'í Faith as being analogous to that between Judaism and
Christianity. This is, to a large extent, a useful analogy. The thought of the
Báb and Bahá'u'lláh is of course in dialogue with their
cultural and religious milieu. Though their social teachings were
revolutionary, both expressed theologies that very much reflected Islamic
thought. Both held Muhammad and the Qur'án in the highest regard and
quoted from Qur'án and hadíth extensively.
'Abdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi, however, utilize cultural and literary
frameworks other than Islam in their writings--particularly the West--and thus
present a Bahá'í religion that is less Islamic in language and
approach.
James Heggie's Bahá'í References to Judaism, Christianity, and
Islam is a comprehensive resource of primary source references to Islam.
Lights of Guidance, 494-8, has a variety of notes on Muhammad and
Islam.
Ferraby, 21, 46-47 Huddleston, 23-4, 173-8
Hatcher and Martin, 1-5
Many areas of Bahá'í scholarship--such as, for example, applied
social change--would not necessarily require an examination of Islam. However,
most scholars feel that in order to understand the rise of the
Bábí and Bahá'í Faiths, it is extremely important
to be familiar with Islamic thought and especially the social, religious,
political, and cultural context of nineteenth-century Iran. Perhaps with this
consideration in mind, Bahá'í academics have done more
scholarship on Islam than on any other religion save the Bábí
movement. (Apologetic "teaching" material in North America and Europe, however,
addresses Christian themes more than Islamic ones.)
¶7.1. Background: Islam and Shí'ism
Shí'ism split off from mainstream (later "Sunní") Islam
over the issue of successorship to Muhammad, the Shí''is
believing that Muhammad had during his lifetime appointed his son-in-law
'Alí to lead the community following his death, and the Sunnís
holding that leadership fell to the community as a whole and its elected
leaders. Shí'ism, as a separate branch of Islam, developed some
distinguishing characteristics such as political quietism, esoteric
spirituality, authoritative spiritual guidance and hierarchy, a
highly-developed eschatology, and, with the advent of the Persian Safavid
dynasty in the sixteenth-century, a strongly Iranian flavor. These and other
unique qualities are reflected to a high degree in the Bábí and
Bahá'í religions, such that a study of Shí'ism can
be considered just as crucial for an understanding of the Bahá'í
Faith as Islam as a whole.
Bahá'u'lláh's Kitáb-i-Íqán
(Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 63-155) is an extended
commentary of Shí'í and, to a lesser extent, Christian
theology, a reading of which can provide much insight of
Bahá'u'lláh's interpretations of Qur'ánic symbolism.
Hatcher and Martin, 1-6, 20-4 Smith 1987, 5-8
Huddleston, 23-4 Smith 1996, 13-17
Momen, 115
SHI'ISM
Surprisingly little has yet been written on the Bahá'í Faith's
Shi'i background. Moojan Momen's An Introduction to Shi'i Islam, one of
the best and by far the most detailed introductions to Shi'ism, includes a few
passing references to the state of the Faith in twentieth-century Iran. Denis
MacEoin's "Changes in Authority in Qajar Shi'ism," in Qajar Iran, edited
by Edmund Bosworth and Carole Hillenbrand, details the authority structures in
the environment into which Babism was born and the interactions and tensions
between them, and his "Divisions and Authority Claims in Babism (1850-1866),"
in Studia Iranica 18:1 (1989), carries the discussion further into
Babism. Jonah Winter's master's thesis Dying For God: Conceptions of
Martyrdom in the Shi'i, Babi, and Bahai Religions includes discussion of
some Shi'i theological symbolism and its transformation in the
Bábí and Bahá'í traditions.
ISLAM
Many introductory works and encyclopedia articles on Islam provide a useful
introduction to the parent religion of the Bábí and
Bahá'í Faiths. The fullest account of Islam written by a
Bahá'í is H. M. Balyuzi's Muhammad and the Course of Islam,
though Balyuzi makes no mention of the Bahá'í religion in the
book. The relationship between the Bahá'í Faith and Islam has
been examined in many works, the longest of which is the collection of eight
articles in Heshmat Moayyad, ed., The Bahá'í Faith and Islam:
Proceedings of Symposium, McGill University, March 1984. Juan Cole's "A
Dialogue on the Bahá'í Faith," in World Order, 15.3/4
(Spring/Summer 1981) considers the impact of Bahá'í teachings on
late nineteenth-century Islamic reformers. William Collins' "Islam's
Tahríf: Implications for the Bahá'í Faith," in World
Order, 11.1 (Fall 1976) considers the Muslim understanding of the quranic
term tahríf ("corruption" of the text) and
Bahá'u'lláh's reinterpretation of the term. Denis MacEoin's "The
Concept of the Nation in Islam," in World Order, 10.4 (Summer 1976)
considers the Bahá'í interpretation of the concept of nation,
especially as it was understood in Islam. Christopher Buck's Symbol and
Secret: Qur'án Commentary in Bahá'u'lláh's
Kitáb-i-Íqán: Studies in the Bábí and
Bahá'í Religions, volume 7, discusses in depth
Bahá'u'lláh's interpretations of much of Islamic symbolism.
Moojan Momen addresses another aspect of dialogue, that of mutual influence, in
his "The Bahá'í Influence on the Reform Movements of the Islamic
World in the 1860's and 1870's," in Bahá'í Studies Bulletin,
2.2 (Sept. 1983).
¶7.2. Background: Nineteenth-Century Iran and Shaykhism
A great number of Shaykhís accepted the Báb's
claims, and the vitality of the movement, in large part, was absorbed by
Babism. Bahá'ís were quick to interpret Shaykhism
as a divinely-inspired precursor to the Báb.
The narrative of Nabíl-i-Zarandí, the Dawn-Breakers,
discusses the Shaykhí background of the Bábí
movement in depth.
Ferraby, 185-86 Smith 1987, 8-13, 17-8, 35, 42, 45
Hatcher and Martin, 6 Smith 1996, 17-8, 22-6, 32, 40
Huddleston, 173-77
IRAN
No extended academic work has yet been devoted to placing the
Bábí and Bahá'í religions in their Iranian context,
but some short studies are very useful. Two articles published in The
International Journal of Middle East Studies, Juan Cole's "Iranian
millenarianism and democratic thought in the 19th century" in 24 (Feb. 1992)
and Moojan Momen's "Social basis of the Babi upheavals in Iran (1848-53): a
preliminary analysis" in 15 (May 1983) each offer a fairly in-depth examination
of the sociological influences of the Bábí movement. The longest
survey of the period is Mangol Bayat's Mysticism and Dissent: socioreligious
thought in Qajar Iran, which offers two full chapters on
Shaykhism and one on Babism. Juan R. Cole's "Iranian
Millenarianism and Democratic Thought in the 19th Century," published in The
International Journal of Middle East Studies, 24 (1992): 1-26, provides
excellent context for the thought and writings of Bahá'u'lláh.
SHAYKHISM
Denis MacEoin's "Orthodoxy and heterodoxy in nineteenth-century
Shí'ism: the cases of Shaykhism and Babism," in
Journal of the American Oriental Society, 110 (April/June 1990)
discusses the influences of the Bábí movement from a theological
perspective. The single best work designed to provide Iranian and
Shaykhí context is Abbas Amanat's Resurrection and
Renewal: The Making of the Bábí Movement in Iran, 1844-1850,
especially part one, "Historical Background," 33-105. Peter Smith,
Bábí and Bahá'í Religions, 5-13, provides an
excellent summary of the context. A useful article on a related subject is
Denis MacEoin's "Early Shaykhí Reactions to the Báb
and his Claims," in Moojan Momen, Studies in Bábí and
Bahá'í History, volume 1, a partial abridgment of his
doctoral dissertation From Shaykhism
to Babism: A Study in Charismatic Renewal in Shí'i
Islam. Vahid Rafati's doctoral dissertation examines
Shaykhí thought, especially as it relates to Babism, and
thus is a valuable source of background. Rafati summarizes aspects of his
dissertation an article of the same title, "The Development of
Shaykhí Thought in Shí'í Islam," in
The Bahá'í Faith and Islam. Momen briefly discusses the
Shaykhí school in An Introduction to
Shí'í Islam, pages 225-31.
¶8. Bahá'í Communities of the
World
The Bahá'í Faith has spread to every country of the world.
While much could be written on the development of the Faith in these different
areas and especially on the unique characteristics of the communities in
diverse cultures, most attention has been focused solely on growth. In North
America the rate of conversion to the Faith reached a peak in the
nineteen-sixties and -seventies and since has stabilized at a slow but steady
rate of expansion. In many of the Eastern European countries and those of the
former Soviet Union the dissolution of prohibitions on religion has allowed the
Bahá'í Faith only recently to begin its teaching and conversion
programs, and the Bahá'í communities there have increased
rapidly. Some countries still have no significant Bahá'í
communities, such as most Islamic countries where the Faith has been
sporadically persecuted. The most significant growth has been in Third World
countries, some of which, like India, boast quite sizeable Bahá'í
communities.
¶8.1. The Bahá'í Faith in Africa, Latin America, and
Oceania
Compilations from the Bahá'í writings on the Pacific include "The
Islands of the North Sea" and "The Islands of the Pacific," both in
Bahá'í Studies Review, 6 (1996).
Hatcher and Martin, Africa: 193, 203; Smith 1987, Africa: 167, 169, 171,
Latin America: 68-9, 71; Oceania: 175, 190-1; Latin America: 158, 167-9, 171,
193 190-2; Oceania: 67, 169, 171, 190-5
Momen, 133 Smith 1996, Africa: 104, 133, 146-8;
Latin America: 110-1, 124-5, 132-3,
139, 143, 148-50; Oceania: 142, 150
The Bahá'ís of Africa, Latin America, and the ocean islands have
been less studied that those of any region, and yet their history is
potentially very significant, because the indigenization of the
Bahá'í religion in cultures that are neither Islamic nor Western
offers a unique opportunity to explore its flexibility and capacity to
innovate. Gregory C. Dahl wrote a very descriptive essay titled "Indian
Bahá'ís of Bolivia" in World Order, 4.1 (Fall 1969). The
only known scholarly study of the African Bahá'ís is Loni
Bramson-Lerche's "The Bahá'í Faith in Nigeria," in Dialogue
and Alliance. Graham Hassall has written three excellent studies on the
spread of the Bahá'í Faith in the South Pacific: "The
Bahá'í Faith in Australia, 1920-34: Some Notes on John and Clara
Hyde-Dunn," in Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 2.1 (June 1983),
"Pacific Bahá'í Communities, 1950-1964," in Donald H. Rubinstein,
ed., Pacific History: Papers from the 8th Pacific History Association
Conference, and "The Bahá'í Faith in the Asia Pacific: issues
and prospects," in Bahá'í Studies Review, 6 (1996).
¶8.2. The Bahá'í Faith in Europe
'Abdu'l-Bahá's talks in Europe have been published in various
collections, such as Paris Talks and 'Abdu'l-Bahá in London.
A memoir by Mahmúd-i-Zarghání, who accompanied
'Abdu'l-Bahá on his European travels, is published in Persian, and an
English translation is forthcoming. The Universal House of Justice has compiled
references on Europe in A Compilation of Bahá'í Writings on
Germany, France, Italy, and Switzerland, in Bahá'í Studies
Review, 4.1 (1994); "Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union: A Compilation of
Bahá'í Writings," in Bahá'í Studies Review,
3.1 (1993); and "Europe: A Compilation from the Bahá'í Writings,"
in Bahá'í Studies Review, 1.1 (1991).
Hatcher and Martin, 69, 71, 193 Smith 1987, 100, 106-7, 166, 168, 171,
180-90
Momen, 133 Smith 1996, 88, 97, 120, 140-1
One of the few articles on the Bahá'í Faith in Europe is Phillip
R. Smith, "What Was a Bahá'í? Concerns of British
Bahá'ís, 1900-1920," in Moojan Momen, Studies in Honor of the
Late Hasan M. Balyuzi: Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í
Religions, volume 5. Short but very analytical histories of the Danish
Bahá'í community have been published by Margit Warburg, including
"The Circle, the Brotherhood, and the Ecclesiastical Body: Bahá'í
[sic] in Denmark, 1925-1987," her demographic study "Growth Patterns of New
Religions: The Case of Bahá'í," in Robert Towler, ed, New
Religions and the New Europe, and various other unpublished papers on the
Danish and northern European Bahá'í communities. Some
biographical work has been done such as Wendy Heller's Lidia: The Life of
Lidia Zamenhof, Daughter of Esperanto; John Paul Vader's For the Good of
Mankind: August Forel and the Bahá'í Faith; and Luigi
Stendardo's Leo Tolstoy and the Bahá'í Faith. Work is
needed on the traveling teaching work of Louise Gregory; the pioneering work of
Marion Jack in Bulgaria; the interest in the Bahá'í religion
shown by Queen Marie of Romania; the role of the International
Bahá'í Bureau in Geneva; and many national and local
Bahá'í community histories. A new priority is study of the
extremely rapid growth of the Bahá'í community in the formerly
communist countries of central and eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union.
Robert Stockman's "The Bahá'í Faith in England and Germany,
1900-1913," in World Order 27.3 (Spring 1996) covers the introduction of
the Bahá'í Faith and early growth in these countries.
¶8.3. The Bahá'í Faith in Iran
Ferraby, 62 Smith 1987, 86-99, 172-80
Hatcher and Martin, 195-8 Smith 1996, 88-92, 132-6
Huddleston, 225-30
A monograph treating the history of the Bahá'í Faith in Iran is
badly needed and overdue. Moreover, because tens of thousands of Iranian
Bahá'ís have fled Iran there are now persons in the West who
speak Persian and Arabic and who can acquire the training to produce scholarly
histories. A surprisingly large amount of archival material is available as
well. A very good article giving a summary of Iranian Bahá'í
history, by Vahid Rafati, may be found in the Encyclopedia Iranica.
Peter Smith's collection of historical essays, titled In Iran,
Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume
3, is the most useful source of any length. Susan Stiles' "Early Zoroastrian
Conversions to the Bahá'í Faith in Yazd, Iran," in Juan R. Cole
and Moojan Momen, From Iran East and West, Studies in Bábí and
Bahá'í History, volume 2, is also significant, for it studies
the impact of Westernization and modernization on conversion. Moojan Momen's
"Early Relations Between Christian Missionaries and the Bábí and
Bahá'í Communities," in Moojan Momen, Studies in
Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume 1, provides
some information on the Western reactions to the growing
Bábí-Bahá'í movement. This work has been expanded
in Moojan Momen, The Bábí and Bahá'í Religions,
1844-1944: Some Contemporary Western Accounts. The development of Iranian
Bahá'í women and the impact of Western women on their
consciousness of their status has been explored in Baharieh Rouhani Ma'ani's
"The Interdependence of Bahá'í Communities: Services of North
American Bahá'í Women to Iran," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 4.1 (Mar.-June 1991): 19-46.
A considerable quantity of original source material on the Iranian
Bahá'í community also is available, often in English translation.
Edward Granville Browne visited Iran, met Bahá'ís, and obtained
manuscripts from them that he subsequently translated; published in various
works, these have been compiled by Moojan Momen into one collection titled
Selections from the Writings of E. G. Browne on the Bábí and
Bahá'í Religions. Some information not included in this
volume may be found in Browne's Materials for the Study of the
Bábí Religion and the original editions of A Traveller's
Narrative. Roy Mottahedeh's The Mantle of the Prophet: Religion and
Politics in Iran, a historical portrayal of life in twentieth-century Iran
written as an autobiography of a semi-fictional character, depicts and brings
to life many of Iran's political, social, and religious tensions. Though this
book is not about the Faith and only contains a few references to it (though
Mottahedeh is a Bahá'í), the book allows the reader to gain a
good understanding of the Faith's cultural background.
¶8.4. The Bahá'í Faith in North America
The United States emerged immediately as the largest Bahá'í
community in the West, and the center of publishing in Western languages. The
early American Bahá'í community developed out of two groups:
disaffected evangelical Protestants, attracted to the Bahá'í
emphasis on fulfillment of biblical prophecy; and those who had abandoned
Christianity for "metaphysical" groups, and who then became
Bahá'ís for a variety of reasons. The creation of a body of
translations of Bahá'í scriptures, the writing of accurate
introductory explanations of the Bahá'í teachings, and
consolidation of the new converts into a single, unified community took several
decades and was not essentially completed until about the mid-1930s. The North
American Bahá'í community has been extremely important in
worldwide Bahá'í history, and promises to play an important role
in the future as well.
'Abdu'l-Bahá gave many talks when he visited the United States and
Canada; these were collected and published as The Promulgation of Universal
Peace. His visit is the subject of Allan L. Ward's Two Hundred
Thirty-Nine Days: 'Abdu'l-Bahá's Journey in America. A memoir of
'Abdu'l-Bahá's visit by Mahmúd-i-Zarghání,
who accompanied him on his North American tour, has been published in Persian
and soon will be published in English. The definitive theological statement
about the community's destiny is Shoghi Effendi's "America and the Most Great
Peace," published in World Order of Bahá'u'lláh, 71-94.
Esslemont, 59-60 Smith 1987, 100-14, 180-90
Ferraby, 231-32 Smith 1996, 95-7, 110-1, 138-9
Hatcher and Martin, 53-60, 66-9, 193
GENERAL
Aside from Arthur Hampson's valuable dissertation The Growth and Spread of
the Bahá'í Faith, which devotes over 200 pages to examining
growth and diffusion patterns of the Faith across North America from 1893 to
1973, no general history of the American Bahá'í community has yet
been written; one must still piece together American Bahá'í
history by reading various books that cover the different periods of its
history. Much work has been done on the establishment and early spread of the
Bahá'í Faith in America. The Bahá'í Faith spread to
North America in the full light of history, and there were
non-Bahá'í observers who wrote about the process. Most useful is
Edward G. Browne, who collected a considerable amount of letters and newspaper
clippings and published them in his Materials for the Study of the
Bábí Religion. Robert Stockman's "The Bahá'í
Faith in America: One Hundred Years," in World Order, 25.3 (Spring
1994), is a useful overview of the religion's history in North America, and his
"The American Bahá'í Community in the Nineties," in America's
Alternative Religons, ed. Timothy Miller, discusses the issues and concerns
currently facing the community.
The existing literature contains two approaches to early American
Bahá'í history. Peter Smith argues that the American
Bahá'ís were heavily influenced by the cultic or metaphysical
milieu in the United States; Robert Stockman favors an interpretation
emphasizing evangelical Protestantism instead. Peter Smith's "The American
Bahá'í Community, 1894-1917: A Preliminary Survey," in Moojan
Momen, Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í History,
volume 1, represents the first survey of early American Bahá'í
history attempted; it relies heavily and usefully on sociological theory.
Robert H. Stockman's series The Bahá'í Faith in America,
Origins, 1892-1900, volume 1, and Early Expansion, 1900-1912, volume
2, is the most comprehensive history of the origins of the American
Bahá'í community, though it is gradually becoming out of date.
Stockman has also written an unpublished biography of Thornton Chase, one of
the first American Bahá'ís.
HETERODOXY
Richard Hollinger's "Ibrahim George Kheiralla and the Bahá'í
Faith in America," in Juan Cole and Moojan Momen, From Iran East and West:
Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume 2,
and "Some New Notes on Ibrahim Kheiralla," in Bahá'í Studies
Bulletin, 2.3 (Dec. 1983), describe the life of the man who brought the
Bahá'í Faith to the Occident from the Middle East and later,
seeking to establish his own authority in the West, rebelled against
'Abdu'l-Bahá. Peter Smith, "Reality Magazine: Editorship and
Ownership of an American Bahá'í Periodical," in Juan Cole and
Moojan Momen, From Iran East and West: Studies in Bábí and
Bahá'í History, volume 2 explores the development of
heterodoxy and orthodoxy in the American Bahá'í community from
the late teens through the early 1930s.
VARIOUS HISTORIES
William Collins' "Kenosha, 1893-1912: History of an Early American
Bahá'í Community in the United States," in Moojan Momen,
Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume 1
describes the third-oldest Bahá'í community in the United States,
one which grew until its membership reached several percent of the town's
population, at which point it experienced attempts to repress it. Bruce
Whitmore's The Dawning Place: The Building of a Temple, the Forging of the
North American Bahá'í Community tells the story of the
construction of the Bahá'í House of Worship in Wilmette,
Illinois, the center of the American Bahá'í community today, and
its influence on Bahá'í organizational growth all over the
continent. Since much of the development of a national governing structure is
tied to the construction of the House of Worship, this work is a useful
longitudinal study of the American Bahá'í community. R. Jackson
Armstrong-Ingram's Music, Devotions, and
Mashriqu'l-Adhkár: Studies in
Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume 4 tells the
story of the development of hymn writing and singing among the American
Bahá'ís and offers more details about the construction of the
House of Worship. Robert Stockman offers differing perspectives of many topics
in this book in his "Review of Music, Devotions, and
Mashriqu'l-Adhkár," in
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 1.2 (1988-1989). O. Z.
Whitehead has produced three collections of biographical essays on important
early Bahá'ís called Portraits of Some Bahá'í
Women, Some Bahá'ís to Remember, and Some Early
Bahá'ís of the West. Richard Hollinger's Community
Histories: Studies in the Bábí and Bahá'í
Religions, volume 6 provides histories of six North American
Bahá'í communities, and a very useful introduction that offers
analysis of the common trends in local Bahá'í community
development.
CANADA
Will van den Hoonaard has published two studies on the Canadian
Bahá'í Community: "Canada's Earliest Bahá'í
History," in World Order, 22.1/2 (Fall 1987 Winter 1987-88), 39-49,
followed by his exhaustively-researched The Origins of the
Bahá'í Faith in Canada, 1898-1948. Part of the latter has
been distilled as "The Bahá'í Community of Canada: A Case Study
in the Transplantation of Non-Western Religious Movements to Western
Societies," in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 7:3 (March-June
1997). The little volume Abdu'l-Bahá in Canada includes primary
source material such as newspaper reports and photographs as well as
transcriptions of his talks in Montreal.
¶8.5. The Bahá'í Faith in the Former Soviet
Union.
Bahá'ís first moved from Iran to formerly Soviet Central Asia in
the 1870s, building the world's first House of Worship in
'Ishqábád.
The Research Department of the Universal House of Justice has collected
relevant texts in "Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union: A Compilation from the
Bahá'í Writings," in The Bahá'í Studies
Review, 3.1 (1993).
Hatcher and Martin, 199-200 Smith 1996, 62, 88, 93-4, 120, 138, 141
Smith 1987, 90-1, 121, 161, 165-71, 173
Anthony Lee's "The Rise of the Bahá'í Community of
'Ishqábád," in The Bahá'í Faith in
Russia: Two Early Instances (Bahá'í Studies, vol. 5)
describes the history of the largest Bahá'í community ever to
have existed in the former Soviet Union, and the construction of its
Bahá'í House of Worship, the first in the world. The other paper
published in the same monograph is A. M. Ghadirian's "Count Leo Tolstoy and his
Appreciation of the Bahá'í Faith." A more thorough treatment of
Tolstoy's views about the Bahá'í Faith, and how those views have
been variously interpreted, may be found in William Collins and Jan Jasion,
"Lev Tolstoy and the Bábí and Bahá'í Religions: A
Bibliography." "Persecutions under the Soviet Régime," in The
Bahá'í World: A Biennial International Record, vol. 3,
1928-1930, 34-43, covers the destruction of the Soviet
Bahá'í community under Stalin. Graham Hassall has collected a
good variety of material in "Notes on the Bábí and
Bahá'í Religions in Russia and its Territories," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 5.3 (Sept.-Dec. 1993).
¶8.6. The Bahá'í Faith in South and East Asia
Esslemont, 252-53 Smith 1987, 86-99, 190-95
Hatcher and Martin, 193-203 Smith 1996, 111, 133, 145-6
Momen, 131, 133-4
Virtually nothing has been written about the spread of the Bahá'í
Faith to India and then to Burma in the 1870s and 1880s, and the Faith's
subsequent indigenization in both countries. This is particularly unfortunate,
since India and Burma represent the first two countries of what later came to
be called the Third World to have Bahá'í communities. Two works
by early American travelers to these countries exist and are illuminating,
however. The longest has recently been reprinted: Sidney Sprague's A Year
With the Bahá'ís of India and Burma.
The Indian Bahá'í community--currently the largest in the
world--has been the most studied. William Garlington's "Bahá'í
Conversions in Malwa, Central India," in Moojan Momen, From Iran East and
West: Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í History,
volume 2, is an abridgement of the author's doctoral dissertation
The Bahá'í Faith in Malwa: A Study of a Contemporary Religious
Movement. Garlington has also written a piece about Bahá'í
hymns to Bahá'u'lláh composed in the traditional genre of hymns
to the Lord Krishna, called "Bahá'í Bhajans" in World
Order, 16.2 (Winter 1982). Margit Warburg has examined some of the
sociological factors for conversion to the Bahá'í Faith in
"Conversion: Considerations before a Field-Work in a Bahá'í
Village in Kerala." For discussion of some of the issues of conversions of
Hindus to the Bahá'í Faith, see Moojan Momen's little book,
The Bahá'í Faith and Hinduism.
A bit more has been written recently on the development of Bahá'í
communities in East Asia. Barbara R. Sims' book, Traces that Remain,
chronicles major events in the growth of the Bahá'í Faith in
Japan, and provides numerous photographs of that community. Her The Taiwan
Bahá'í Chronicle: A Historical Record of the Early Days of the
Bahá'í Faith in Taiwan, also complete with photographs,
briefly covers the period 1954 to 1973. Jimmy Ewe Huat Seow has written The
Pure in Heart, a history of the spread of the Bahá'í Faith
among Chinese people in China, Singapore, Malaysia, Burma, and other East Asian
countries.
¶9. Bahá'í Faith, Introduction
to
See "The Bahá'í Faith: A Short Introduction," in section one,
above, for a sample summary of the Bahá'í Faith.
Esslemont, 1-10 Smith 1987, 1-2
Ferraby, 15-30 Smith 1996, 151-8
Hatcher and Martin, viii xvii, 187-88
The articles on the Bahá'í Faith in the Encyclopedia
Britannica, Encyclopedia Iranica, Encyclopedia of Islam, and
in Eliade's Encyclopedia of Religion are all useful, accurate, and
complete sources of basic information. Shoghi Effendi, one of the heads of the
Bahá'í Faith, has summarized the Faith; his précis may be
found in Call to the Nations, xi-xviii. An excellent summary of the
Bahá'í religion by a non-Bahá'í is Jacques
Chouleur's "The Bahá'í Faith: World Religion of the Future?" in
World Order, 12.1 (Fall 1977). Book-length introductions to the Faith
are described in "books to start with," in the section "The
Bahá'í Faith: A Short Introduction," above.
World religion textbooks do not yet provide coverage of the
Bahá'í Faith that is adequate, either in length or accuracy.
Solomon Nigosian's World Faiths, 2d ed., is the only introductory
religions textbook with a decent, though still short, treatment of the Faith.
For a discussion of their treatment of the Bahá'í religion, see
Paul D. Numrich, "The Bahá'í Faith in World Religions Textbooks,"
World Order, 25.2. See "The Bahá'í Faith in Religion
Textbooks and Encyclopedias," below, for further information.
¶10. Bahá'í History
The volumes of The Bahá'í World, published from 1925 to
the present, are the single best source for overviews of and statistics on
Bahá'í history for any year of the above. The only exception is
volume XIX, for the years of 1983 to 1992, which has not yet been released. One
of the only broad-scope treatments of Bahá'í history is Arthur
Hampson's lengthy and detailed dissertation, The Growth and Spread of the
Bahá'í Faith, which examines themes of sociology, religious
authority, and conversion patterns behind the growth and spread of the Faith
from its beginnings through to 1973.
¶10.1. Bahá'í History, 1863-92
During the years 1863-92, the vast majority of the world's
Bahá'ís were confined to Iran and the Ottoman Empire, and
virtually all were Iranians of Shí'í background. Starting
in the 1870s and 80s, Jews and Zoroastrians began to join the new religion, as
well as a few Christians. In the 1880s the religion began to grow in Central
Asia, mostly by emigration from Iran to escape persecution; the Faith also
spread to Burma, where Buddhists and Muslims converted.
Ferraby, 213-20 Momen, 120-7
Hatcher and Martin, 37-49 Smith 1987, 86-99
Huddleston, 196-204 Smith 1996, 51-60
Considerable quantities of historical data and contemporary first-hand
histories are available. 'Abdu'l-Bahá himself wrote a history from the
declaration of the Báb through the life of Bahá'u'lláh
titled A Traveller's Narrative Written to Illustrate the Episode of the
Báb. Edward G. Browne's original publication of his translation of
A Traveller's Narrative includes hundreds of pages of useful addenda in
the form of biographies, notes, translations, and observations, all of which
were removed in the later printing by the Bahá'í Publishing
Trust. A contemporary description of the Iranian Bahá'í community
may also be found in Browne's introduction to A Traveller's Narrative
(where his famous pen-portrait of Bahá'u'lláh was first
published), and more are scattered throughout the pages of his A Year
Amongst the Persians. Browne's comments on the Bahá'ís have
been collected and published by Moojan Momen in Selections from the Writings
of E. G. Browne on the Bábí and Bahá'í
Religions. A critique of the European scholarship done on the early Iranian
Bahá'í community may be found in Denis MacEoin's "Oriental
Scholarship and the Bahá'í Faith," in World Order, 8.4
(Summer 1974).
Very little research has been done on the early Middle Eastern and South Asian
Bahá'í communities. Of particular use is Peter Smith's collection
of essays by various Bahá'í historians titled In Iran: Studies
in Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume 3.
Susan Stiles' essay, "Early Zoroastrian Conversions to the
Bahá'í Faith in Yazd, Iran," published in Juan Cole and Moojan
Momen, From Iran East and West: Studies in Bábí and
Bahá'í History, volume 2, is of great importance, as
it examines the connection between conversion to the Bahá'í
Faith, indigenization of the Bahá'í Faith in Iranian culture, and
the affect of Westernization on Zoroastrianism. The conclusions have been
further developed in Susan Stiles Maneck, "The Conversion of Religious
Minorities to the Bahá'í Faith in Iran: Some Preliminary
Observations," in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 3.3
(1990-1991): 35-48. Some additional information on Iranian Bahá'í
contact with Zoroastrianism is contained in Gol Aidun, "Manekji Limji Hataria
and the Bahá'í Faith," published in Bahá'í
Studies Notebook, 1.1 (December 1980). Manekji was the agent sent to Iran
by India's Parsees to emancipate their coreligionists from persecution. Moojan
Momen's "Early Relations Between Christian Missionaries and the
Bábí and Bahá'í Communities," in Moojan Momen,
Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume
1, provides some information on the Western reactions to the growing
Bábí-Bahá'í movement. This work has been expanded
in Moojan Momen, The Bábí and Bahá'í Religions,
1844-1944: Some Contemporary Western Accounts. Biographies of individual
Bahá'ís, prominent and less prominent, are scattered throughout
Adib Taherzadeh's four-volume work, The Revelation of
Bahá'u'lláh. Hasan Balyuzi's Eminent Bahá'ís
In the Time of Bahá'u'lláh also is a source of biographies
and local community histories; other brief biographies are found in Balyuzi,
Bahá'u'lláh: The King of Glory. Two studies examine the
Cyprus exiles: Bahíyyih Nakhjavání's Four on an
Island is a rather poetic biography of the four Bahá'í exiles
to Cyprus, and Moojan Momen's "The Cyprus Exiles," in Bahá'í
Studies Bulletin, 5.3-6.1 (1991) provides significant and extensive
biographic data on Mírzá Yahyá and the other Cyprus
covenant-breakers.
¶10.2. Bahá'í History, 1921-1953: Growth,
Persecution, and The First and Second Seven-Year Plans
The years 1921 to 1953 can be divided into two phases. From 1921 to 1937 Shoghi
Effendi built the administrative institutions that organize the
Bahá'í religion (see Administrative Order). These were largely
established by 1937. From 1937 to 1953 Shoghi Effendi directed the American
Bahá'ís to carry out two plans, the First Seven-Year Plan
(1937-1944) and the Second Seven-Year Plan (1946-1953). The first plan had as
its goals the completion of the exterior of the Bahá'í House of
Worship in Wilmette, Illinois; the election of at least one local spiritual
assembly in every state in the United States and every province of Canada; and
the establishment of the Bahá'í Faith in every country in Latin
America. All the goals were achieved. The second plan had as goals the
completion of the interior of the House of Worship and its gardens, thereby
allowing the building to be dedicated; the election of National Spiritual
Assemblies for Canada, for Central America, and for South America; and
expansion of the Bahá'í Faith in post-war Europe. The period has
still been very little studied.
A major source of original documents from the era of the Guardianship are the
collections of letters by Shoghi Effendi, such as Bahá'í
Administration; Citadel of Faith; Dawn of a New Day; High
Endeavors: Messages to Alaska; Letters from the Guardian to Australia
and New Zealand, 1923-1957; The Light of Divine Guidance: The Messages
from the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith to the
Bahá'ís of Germany and Austria; Messages to America;
Messages to the Bahá'í World; Unfolding Destiny:
Messages from the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith to the
Bahá'í Community of the British Isles; and World Order of
Bahá'u'lláh. A compilation detailing the period,
Significance of the Formative Age, can be found in Compilation of
Compilations, volume II.
Ferraby, 224-38 Momen, 127-8
Hatcher and Martin, 64-69 Smith 1987, 115-26, 157-61
Huddleston, 215-20 Smith 1996, 101-12
One of the few analyses of the beginning of the institution of the Guardianship
is Loni Bramson-Lerche's "Some Aspects of the Establishment of the
Guardianship," in Moojan Momen, ed., Studies in Honor of the Late Hasan M.
Balyuzi: Studies in the Bábí and Bahá'í
Religions, volume 5, 253-93. Her "Some Aspects of the Development of
the Bahá'í Administrative Order in America, 1922-1936," in Moojan
Momen, Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í History,
volume 1, also offers useful information. Eunice Braun summarizes the salient
events of the period in From Strength to Strength, 5-43.
¶10.3. Bahá'í History, 1953-1963: The Ten Year
Crusade and the Death of the Guardian
The decade from 1953 to 1963 saw greater expansion of the Bahá'í
Faith than it had ever seen previously. Shoghi Effendi drew up ten plans, one
for each national spiritual assembly, with coordinated goals to take the
Bahá'í Faith to most of Africa, the Pacific Islands, and other
places outside the communist bloc where it had not yet penetrated. At the end
of the plan the number of national spiritual assemblies increased to fifty-six.
In the middle of the plan Shoghi Effendi died, but the Hands of the Cause of
God continued to administer it, scrupulously adhering to its every detail.
Shoghi Effendi's passing is described in The Bahá'í World,
Volume XIII, 207-25. The Hands' principal messages to the
Bahá'í world are published in The Bahá'í World,
Volume XIII, 339-78. Over 400 pages of official and private communications
of the Hands have been published in The Ministry of the Custodians,
1957-1963; this work is essential to any understanding of the period. The
decision that no additional Guardians can be appointed is given by the
Universal House of Justice in Wellspring of Guidance, 11, 81-91.
Esslemont, 283-84 Momen, 128
Hatcher and Martin, 69-71 Smith 1987, 126-28
Huddleston, 220-22 Smith 1996, 112-15
Eunice Braun discusses the period in From Strength to Strength, 43-52.
One of the only analyses is Graham Hassell's "Bahá'í History in
the Formative Age: The World Crusade, 1953-1963," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 6.4 (Dec. 1994-Mar. 1995).
¶10.4. Bahá'í History, 1963-79: Rapid Expansion and
Diversification
The period from 1963 to 1979 saw some remarkable developments in the
Bahá'í world community. Membership greatly increased everywhere,
and Third-World Bahá'í communities began to come of age. The
Universal House of Justice came into existence in 1963, established a nine-year
plan and then a five-year plan for spreading the Bahá'í Faith,
organized new compilations and translations of Bahá'í scripture,
and wrote several significant messages that answered questions and resolved
issues raised by the death of Shoghi Effendi. Bahá'í scholarship
underwent an important acceleration.
The selections of letters by the Universal House of Justice for this period are
Wellspring of Guidance: Messages 1963-1968, Messages from the
Universal House of Justice, 1968-1973, and Third Epoch of the Formative
Age: Messages from the Universal House of Justice, 1963-86. Also of
importance is The Constitution of the Universal House of Justice, which
the House of Justice drew up and ratified in 1972.
Esslemont, 285-86 Momen, 130-4
Hatcher and Martin, 72-3, 171 Smith 1987, 132-35, 157-72, 90-95
Huddleston, 222-25, 242-99 Smith 1996, 116-28
Eunice Braun's From Strength to Strength, 53-64, covers the events of
this time. A more complete summary can be found in Peter Smith and Moojan
Momen's "The Bahá'í Faith 1957-1988: A Survey of Contemporary
Developments," in Religion, 19 (Jan. 1989).
¶10.5. Bahá'í History, 1979-Present: Iranian
Persecution, Globalization
Since 1979 the Bahá'í world has been shaken by a fierce
persecution of the Bahá'í Faith in Iran and the movement of tens
of thousands of Iranian Bahá'í refugees to countries all around
the globe. The Universal House of Justice has continued to grow in strength,
issuing a series of extremely important messages on Bahá'í
involvement in social and economic development projects, the
Bahá'í view on the prerequisites for world peace (The Promise
of World Peace), and a definition of individual rights and responsibilities
in the Bahá'í Faith (Individual Rights and Freedoms in the
World Order of Bahá'u'lláh). The Bahá'í World
Centre began undergoing significant expansion, and the construction of the
remaining buildings planned for the World Centre commenced.
A compilation of letters of the Universal House of Justice has been published
under the title A Wider Horizon: Selected Messages of the Universal House of
Justice, 1983-1992. The collection includes all Ridván messages,
messages regarding Bahá'í teaching plans and the Holy Year, and
other significant messages.
Hatcher and Martin, 168-69, 171, 187-206 Smith 1987, 136-95 Smith 1996, 135-7
Huddleston, 225-33
Peter Smith and Moojan Momen's "The Bahá'í Faith 1957-1988: A
Survey of Contemporary Developments," in Religion, 19 (Jan. 1989),
provides an overview of the period up to 1988, as well as a discussion of
prospects.
¶11. Bahá'u'lláh
For a collection of brief notes on Bahá'u'lláh's life and
station, see Lights of Guidance 471-7; on some of
Bahá'u'lláh's teachings, see 477-84.
¶11.1. Bahá'u'lláh's Life and Mission
Bahá'ís believe that Bahá'u'lláh, 1817-1892,
the Prophet-Founder of the Bahá'í Faith, has revealed the
religion for the next stage of humanity's continuing spiritual evolution. His
mission differs from that of previous Manifestations, however, in that with his
revelation the preceding cycle of prophethood, the Adamic Cycle, came to an end
and a new cycle, the Bahá'í Era, was inaugurated.
Bahá'u'lláh marks the end of the "Prophetic Era" and the
beginning of the "Era of Fulfillment."
Bahá'u'lláh writes of his own life in Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh, 303-85 (Epistle to the Son of the Wolf,
in toto); 426 (Gleanings, XLI-XLII); 429-434 (Gleanings,
XLV-LIV); 437-44 (Gleanings, LIX-LXVII); 446-48 (Gleanings,
LXXXI-LXXXII). Geoffrey W. Marks compiled autobiographical statements of
Bahá'u'lláh, with occasional notes, in one source, Call to
Remembrance. 'Abdu'l-Bahá describes Bahá'u'lláh's
sufferings and their significance in Selections from the Writings of
'Abdu'l-Bahá, 259-64.
Esslemont, 23-48; 234-43 Huddleston, 190-204
Faizi, 8-17 Momen, 119-25
Ferraby, 50-67, 203-23 Smith 1987, 57-70
Hatcher and Martin, 28-49 Smith 1996, 51-63
MISSION
No biography of Bahá'u'lláh, utilizing the methods or addressing
the concerns of modern scholarship, has been written. Only one scholarly effort
has been made to set Bahá'u'lláh in the social and historical
context of his times: Juan R. Cole's "Iranian Millenarianism and Democratic
Thought in the 19th Century," published in The International Journal of
Middle East Studies, 24 (1992): 1-26. A very useful biography, however, has
been written by Hasan Balyuzi titled Bahá'u'lláh: The King of
Glory. Taherzadeh's four-volume Revelation of
Bahá'u'lláh is also very useful, though the quantity of other
details is so great that it is difficult to follow Bahá'u'lláh's
life. A compilation of Bahá'í scripture on the life of
Bahá'u'lláh has been published titled Call to Remembrance.
David S. Ruhe examines Bahá'u'lláh's early years in Robe
of Light: The Persian Years of the Supreme Prophet Bahá'u'lláh.
Descriptions of encounters between Bahá'u'lláh and Westerners
have been published in Moojan Momen, The Bábí and
Bahá'í Religions, 1844-1944: Some Contemporary Western Accounts.
LIFE
Stephen Lambden and Christopher Buck have each examined the evolving
nature of Bahá'u'lláh's claims; Buck examines
Bahá'u'lláh's claims regarding his station in the Baghdad
period in Symbol and Secret: Qur'an Commentary in
Bahá'u'lláh's Kitáb-i-Íqán: Studies in the
Bábí and Bahá'í Religions, volume 7, 54-74, and
Lambden the claims of the subsequent period in "Some Notes on
Bahá'u'lláh's Gradually Evolving Claims of the Adrianople/Edirne
Period," in Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 5.3-6.1 (June 1991):
75-83. Buck also attempts a broad-scope analysis of the development of
Bahá'u'lláh's mission in "Bahá'u'lláh as
'World-Reformer,'" in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 3.4 (Dec.
1990-Mar. 1991). Kent Beveridge has examined one specific period of
Bahá'u'lláh's life, the 1868 trip from Adrianople to
'Akká, in his "From Adrianople to 'Akká: The Australian Lloyd,"
in Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 4.1 (Mar. 1986).
¶11.2. Bahá'u'lláh's Writings
Taherzadeh's series Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh is by far
the most extensive source of information on Bahá'u'lláh's various
writings, giving details such as when they were revealed, to whom, and under
what circumstances. Unfortunately the work has no information on the Middle
Eastern social and historical context of Bahá'u'lláh, and how
that context influenced his writings, and is not written critically, from a
scholarly point of view, and thus must be used carefully. Extensive
historical-critical scholarship on Bahá'u'lláh's writings remains
to be done (for one scholarly article, see Juan Cole's "Iranian Millenarianism
and Democratic Thought in the 19th Century").
Much of Bahá'u'lláh's writings in English translation--save parts
of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, The Proclamation of
Bahá'u'lláh, and Bahá'í Prayers--have
been assembled into a single collection titled Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh. Bahá'u'lláh's most important book,
The Kitáb-i-Aqdas, was first published in early 1993. Shoghi
Effendi, God Passes By, 138-41, 171-76, 205-20, summarizes
Bahá'u'lláh's major works very succinctly and skillfully. The
"Leiden List" of Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh, below, is a nascent
annotated bibliography of his major writings.
Esslemont, 48-49 Huddleston, 196, 200-204
Ferraby, 50-67, 221 Smith 1987, 72-85
Hatcher and Martin, 37, 43-47, 84-85 Smith 1996, 64-73
Commentaries on Bahá'u'lláh's writings are still rarely done by
Bahá'ís, though the number appearing in recent years has
increased, and the trend is toward higher quality. Robert McLaughlin's These
Perspicuous Verses is a short commentary on three pages of
Bahá'u'lláh's work titled the Tablet of
Ishráqát. Michael Sours recently published A Study of
Bahá'u'lláh's Tablet to the Christians. Ross Woodman has
assembled two excellent commentaries, A Bahá'í Academy Course
on the Gleanings and A Bahá'í Academy Course on the
Kitáb-i-Íqán. Christopher Buck's Symbol and Secret:
Studies in the Bábí and Bahá'í Religions,
volume 7, a study of Bahá'u'lláh's
Kitáb-i-Íqán, is the fullest examination of a
single Bahá'í text yet published. Suheil Bushrui's The Style
of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas is a shorter examination on the literary
aesthetics of Bahá'u'lláh's Kitáb-i-Aqdas.
¶12. Community
All members of the Bahá'í religion are members of its community.
Bahá'u'lláh laid down a few basic principles about the
organization of his followers: they were to have no clergy; they were to form
governing bodies called houses of justice in each locality; they were to
celebrate certain holy days together; and they were to consult together about
community and personal affairs. 'Abdu'l-Bahá introduced the monthly
community meeting called feast and added a few more Bahá'í
holy days. Shoghi Effendi defined how the houses of justice (temporarily called
spiritual assemblies) were to function and added a business portion to
the feast. Individual Bahá'ís have written surprisingly little
about Bahá'í community life.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 160 (Synopsis and Codification
extract 5 / Aqdas paragraph 30); 162 (Synopsis and Codification
extract 9 / Aqdas paragraph 52); 169 (Synopsis and Codification
extract 169 / Aqdas paragraph 173); 182 (fifth Glad-Tidings, in
Tablets 22-23); 184 (thirteenth Glad-Tidings, in Tablets 26-27);
185 (fifteenth Glad-Tidings, in Tablets p. 28); 203-4 (eighth and ninth
leaves of Paradise, in Tablets 68-71); 234-35 (sixth, seventh, and
eighth Ishráq, in Tablets 127-129); prayer for the Hands
of the Cause, in the Malaysian Prayer Book, page 37. Relevant quotations from
'Abdu'l-Bahá can be found in Selections from the Writings of
'Abdu'l-Bahá, 89-94. Lights of Guidance, 2-14, 43-62, 77-87,
239-48, has notes on a variety of topics of community.
Ferraby, 263-67 Huddleston, 125-27, 132-34
Hatcher and Martin, 151-52, 166-86 Momen, 47-8, 55, 64, 67-82
Robert Stockman examines the composition of the early American
Bahá'í community by distinguishing and describing a few
believer-types in "The American Bahá'í Identity, 1894-1921," in
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 6.4-7.2 (Oct. [Dec.] 1992). One
of the most useful non-academic presentations of Bahá'í community
life is Colette Gouvion and Philippe Jouvion's The Gardeners of God: An
Encounter with Five Million Bahá'ís. Written in a
journalistic style and from a non-Bahá'í viewpoint, it presents a
fair and complete description of the Bahá'í world community and
its attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.
¶13. Consultation
A crucial Bahá'í principle is consultation. It is actually
a complex of attitudes toward people, toward ideas, and toward truth itself
that guides the way Bahá'ís discuss issues and arrive at
decisions. The literature on consultation is expanding rapidly, and it is
coming to be recognized as a major Bahá'í principle, as well as a
potentially significant Bahá'í contribution to the outside world.
Writings from Bahá'u'lláh, 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi,
and the Universal House of Justice are contained in Consultation: A
Compilation, which is reprinted in Compilation of Compilations,
volume I. See also Lights of Guidance, 176-80.
Esslemont, 266-69 Hatcher and Martin, 161-63
Faizi, 100-3 Huddleston, 121-24
Ferraby, 267-68 Momen, 47, 78-80
One basic work on the Bahá'í approach is John Kolstoe's
Consultation: A Universal Lamp of Guidance. An attempt to bring
consultation to the business world is exhibited in Robert B. Rosenfeld and
Michael H. Winger-Bearskin, "Principles of Consultation Applied to the Process
of Innovation in a Corporate Environment," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 3.1 (1990-1991): 31-48.
¶14. Conversion
Bahá'ís are encouraged strongly to teach their religion to others
but must not pressure or coerce others into accepting it. The conversion
process involves no ritual; those who accept Bahá'u'lláh as the
Manifestation of God for this day are seen as Bahá'ís and if they
are aware that Bahá'u'lláh revealed laws they must obey, they are
usually enrolled as members of the Bahá'í community.
Lights of Guidance discusses topics of conversion, especially teaching,
in 565-600.
Esslemont, 79-80 Momen, 103-30
Ferraby, 290-96 Smith 1987, 79, 87-8, 93-4, 146, 157-9
Hatcher and Martin, 172-76 Smith 1996, 88, 122
Huddleston, 130-32, 234-35
ANALYTICAL
The most complete study of Bahá'í conversion practices and
patterns is Arthus Hampson's doctoral dissertation The Growth and Spread of
the Bahá'í Faith, a lengthy sociological study of the history
and pattern of the Faith's diffusion around the world. A fair number of short
academic studies of Bahá'í conversion are also available, usually
done by non-Bahá'ís. These include Chana Ullman's The
Transformed Self: The Psychology of Religious Conversion, which analyzes
two personal accounts of conversion to the Bahá'í Faith in pages
95-103; Peter Smith's and Moojan Momen's "The Bahá'í Faith
1957-1988: A Survey of Contemporary Developments," in Religion 19 (Jan.
1989); James J. Keene's highly statistical anthropological study of conversion
patterns "Baha'i World Faith: Redefinition of Religion," in the Journal for
the Scientific Study of Religion 6:2 (1967), and a brief critical response
to this piece by Agehananda Bharati, "Baha'i Statistics and Self-Defining
Design," in ibid., 7 (1968).
HISTORICAL
Susan Stiles' "Early Zoroastrian Conversions in Iran" and Peter Smith's "The
Bábí Movement: A Resource Mobilization Perspective" describe
conversions in nineteenth-century Iran; Robert Stockman's The
Bahá'í Faith in America, volume 1 and Peter Smith's "The
American Bahá'í Community 1894-1917: a Preliminary Survey,"
describe the process of conversion in the early twentieth-century United
States. Peter Berger's doctoral dissertation, From Sect to Church: a
Sociological Interpretation of the Bahá'í Movement has an
excellent description of the types of people who became Bahá'ís
in the United States in the 1950s. Peter Smith offers a variety of comments on
Berger's work in "Motif Research: Peter Berger and the Bahá'í
Faith," in Religion, 8 (Autumn 1978). William Garlington's dissertation
The Bahá'í Faith in Malwa: A Study of a Contemporary Religious
Movement, abridged as "Bahá'í Conversions in Malwa, Central
India," in Moojan Momen, From Iran East and West: Studies in
Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume 2,
examines the doctrines and institutions of the Faith "as implemented in a
specific cultural environment."
INSTRUCTIVE
Many popular works address the approach Bahá'ís use in teaching
their religion. Two compilations of passages from the Bahá'í
writings are particularly useful: The Individual and Teaching: Raising the
Divine Call and A Special Measure of Love: The Importance and Nature of
the Teaching Work among the Masses. Nathan Rutstein's Spirit in Action:
Teaching the Bahá'í Faith is an attempt to produce a manual
to assist Bahá'ís to teach their religion more effectively.
Learning About Growth: The Story of the Ruhi Institute and Large-Scale
Expansion of the Bahá'í Faith in Columbia describes the
efforts that caused large-scale enrollments to the Bahá'í Faith
in Colombia, for the purpose of assisting Bahá'ís to apply the
techniques elsewhere.
¶15. Covenant
The Bahá'í Faith recognizes two covenants: the Greater
Covenant, a promise God has made to humanity to send Manifestations (see
progressive revelation); and the Lesser Covenant, that the
Bahá'í religion will never suffer schism and sect formation. The
Lesser Covenant is embodied in 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi, and the
Bahá'í Administrative Order, a chain of individuals and
institutions whom the Bahá'í world obeys. Its import can partly
be gleaned from the number of compilations on it (below).
Relevant passages can be found in Writings of Bahá'u'lláh,
278-80 (Book of the Covenant, also in Tablets 219-223); 539
(Gleanings, CLXVI) and 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Selections from the
Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá, 209-64. A compilation of
Bahá'í scriptures on the Covenant has been published under the
title The Covenant, which is included in Compilation of
Compilations, volume I. Many of the passages in the
Bahá'í scriptures on the Covenant have been compiled into a
single slim work titled The Power of the Covenant. There is an excellent
series in three small volumes also called The Power of the Covenant that
describes the Bahá'í concept of the covenant as it relates to the
Bahá'í administrative order, the problem of covenant-breaking,
and opposition to the Bahá'í Faith. See also Lights of
Guidance, 181-91.
Esslemont, 128-31 Momen, 77-8
Ferraby, 241-55 Smith 1987, 73-4, 111, 113-14
Hatcher and Martin, 127-33 Smith 1996, 154-5
Huddleston, 140-41
The only history and overview of the Covenant yet written is Adib Taherzadeh's
The Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh; it is significant because it
describes in considerable detail, never published previously, the various
efforts to break the Covenant and the strategies pursued by the successive
Heads of the Faith to maintain Bahá'í unity.
¶16. Creation: Its Origin and Purpose
The Bahá'í scriptures, while stressing that creation and God are
different in their essence, also describe nature as an agent for manifesting
God's qualities. Every created thing is seen as reflecting an attribute of God.
In this way the Bahá'í scriptures acknowledge a theological basis
for nature mysticism. Nature is seen as a source of nurture for humanity and
its civilization, as well as a source for spiritual education.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 452-53 (Gleanings,
LXXVIII-LXIX); 459 (Gleanings, LXXXIV); 464 (Gleanings, XC).
Esslemont, 204-7 Hatcher and Martin, 74, 99-100
Ferraby, 157-61 Huddleston, 29-35, 54-5
Keven Brown's insightful "A Bahá'í Perspective on the Origin of
Matter," in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 2.3 (1989-1990) is
the only study published thus far devoted to the topic of divine creation. A
brief description of the relationship between the Bahá'í concept
of God and the Bahá'í concept of physical creation may be found
in Juan Cole's "The Concept of the Manifestation in the Bahá'í
Writings," Bahá'í Studies, no. 9, 6-10. A thorough
discussion of the subject may be found in John Hatcher, "The Metaphorical
Nature of Physical Reality," Bahá'í Studies, no. 3, and in
John Hatcher, The Purpose of Physical Reality, chapter 2, "The
Bahá'í Paradigm of Physical Reality" and chapter 3 "A Guide to
the Physical Classroom." Julio Savi's The Eternal Quest for God has an
excellent chapter summarizing the Bahá'í concept of physical
creation.
In addition to discussing physical creation, the Bahá'í writings
describe all of existence as having various levels, which are arranged in a
spiritual hierarchy: first God; then the Holy Spirit; then the Manifestations;
then the individual imbued with the spirit of faith; then the human kingdom;
then the animal kingdom; then the vegetable (plant) kingdom; and finally the
mineral kingdom. The best description of this hierarchy is in
'Abdu'l-Bahá, Selections from the Writings of
'Abdu'l-Bahá, 46-51, 61-62; and in Some Answered Questions,
208-9.
¶17. Economics
Because the Bahá'í Faith offers teachings on all aspects of life
and society it has many teachings that are relevant to economics. Among these
are: its emphasis on work as a form of worship; its view of money as a
substance one holds in trust and which one must expend on oneself, one's
family, and on charity; its views on the relationship between labor and
management, and its forbidding of strikes; its teachings on the need for an
international currency, the establishment of international free trade, and the
need for international economic regulatory agencies.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 237-38 (end of the
Ishráqát, in Tablets 133-134). 'Abdu'l-Bahá,
Some Answered Questions, 273-78. Lights of Guidance lists topics
of social and economic development, 544-54. Badi Shams has compiled numerous
Bahá'í texts on economics, arranged by topic, in A
Bahá'í Perspective on Economics of the Future. The most
complete compilation, arranged neatly by topic and subtopic, is The True
Foundation of all Economics, compiled by Hooshmand Badi'i.
Esslemont, 140-6 Momen, 48-53, 63-6
Ferraby, 99-104 Smith 1987, 149
Hatcher and Martin, 90-93 Smith 1996, 87, 124
Huddleston, 161-63, 169-72
Probably the best short summary of the Bahá'í approach to
economics is Gregory C. Dahl's "Economics and the Bahá'í
Teachings: An Overview," in World Order, 10.1 (Fall 1975). Dahl has
presented some of the same ideas in "Evolving toward a Bahá'í
Economic System," in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 4.3
(Sept.-Dec. 1991), which is a revision of his earlier article in
Bahá'í Studies Notebook 3.3/4 (1984) called "Towards an
Ever-Advancing Civilization." A shorter, but also excellent, summary may be
found in John Huddleston's "The Economy of a World Commonwealth," in World
Order, 9.4 (Summer 1975). John Huddleston has also published a history of
world economics from a Bahá'í perspective called "Towards a World
Economy," in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 3.3 (1990-1991):
21-34. William S. Hatcher's essay "Economics and Moral Values" explores the
connection between economics and morality; it was published in World
Order, 9.2 (Winter 1974-75): 14-27. Giuseppe Robiati's "Faith and World
Economy": A Joint Venture Bahá'í Perspective is the longest
and one of the best examinations of economics and the Bahá'í
teachings. Toward the Most Great Justice: Elements of Justice in the New
World Order, ed. Charles O. Lerche, contains two pieces on economic
justice, and some articles contained in the Association for
Bahá'í Studies' The Bahá'í Faith and Marxism:
Proceedings of a Conference, January 1986 also relate to the topic.
¶18. Education
The Bahá'í writings view education as of paramount
importance. Just as a garden will become a jungle if not maintained and an
animal remains bestial if not trained, likewise people do not attain their
maximum potential without education. Education in Bahá'í thought
is not merely a system of learning academic facts: the material, the human, and
the spiritual aspects of humanity all require their respective spheres of
education. Because of its importance in furthering human civilization,
education must be universal and cumpolsory.
Bahá'í Education: A Compilation. Extracts from the Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh, 'Abdu'l-Bahá, and Shoghi Effendi, which
is reprinted in Compilation of Compilations, volume I, discusses aspects
of child rearing. Six sections of Lights of Guidance--pages 141-58,
210-14, 293-4, 358-64, 555-64, and 628-40--are devoted to quotations on raising
and educating children and youth. The longest compilation on education,
organized by topic, is Foundations for a Spiritual Education. Another
compilation of Bahá'í writings on education is
Bahá'í Education: A Compilation.
Esslemont, 150-3 Momen, 29-33, 43
Ferraby, 95-98 Smith 1987, 90, 152-3
Hatcher and Martin, 85, 90, 181-3 Smith 1996, 87, 143
Huddleston, 105-9
H. T. D. Rost's The Brilliant Stars: The Bahá'í Faith and the
Education of Children provides a summary of the Bahá'í
approach to education; a more personal and practical approach to educational
reform may be found in Nathan Rutstein's Education on Trial. There are
dozens of articles on aspects of education published in World Order
magazine; among them are S. Pattabi Raman's "World Education: In Quest of a
Paradigm" (19.3/4, Spring/Summer 1985); Daniel C. Jordan and Raymond Shepard,
"The Philosophy of the Anisa Model," in World Order, 7.1 (Fall 1972);
Donald T. Streets and Daniel C. Jordan, "Guiding the Process of Becoming: The
Anisa Theories of Curriculum and Teaching," in World Order, 7.4 (Summer
1973); Michael F. Kalinowski and Daniel C. Jordan, "Being and Becoming: The
Anisa Theory of Development," in World Order, 7.4 (Summer 1973). The
entire Fall 1970 issue of World Order (5.1) is devoted to education.
Susan Clay Stoddard discusses the need for spiritual and moral educational
emphases in "Education and Moral Development in Children" in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 1.1 (1988-1989). Barbara Hacker's "Montessori
and the Bahá'í Faith," in Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 1.2 (1988-1989), offers comparisons between the two educational
theories.
The papers given at one conference devoted to the development of
Bahá'í education have been included in Hooshang Nikjoo, ed.,
Trends in Bahá'í Education: Proceedings of the Second
Symposium on Bahá'í Education, 1989, which includes articles
on education and morality, music, parenting, conflict resolution, revelation,
spirituality. Iraj Ayman, ed., A New Framework for Moral
Education (Wienacht, Switzerland: Landegg Academy, 1993) consists of a
collection of seven talks given at a conference on moral education held in
Albania in 1991.
¶19. Environment
The Bahá'í Faith regards concern with the health of the planet
and ecology and agriculture to be fundamental principles, the roots of
humanity's survival. Bahá'ís have been at the forefront of
environmental education, most noticeably with their conspicuous involvement
with the "Earth Summit," the 1992 United Nations Conference on the Environment
in Rio de Janiero, Brazil. Unlike many prevailing attitudes amongst
environmentalists, however, the Faith sees only spiritual values, not simply
political treaties and ecological legislation, as being capable of teaching
humankind properly to respect and heal the environment.
The Universal House of Justice has prepared one collection of sacred texts on
the environment, Conservation of the Earth's Resources, reprinted in
Compilation of Compilations, volume I.
Huddleston, 5 Smith 1996, 125-7
Momen, 40-2, 55
The Bahá'í Faith has recently formulated a position on the
preservation of the environment, based on statements in the
Bahá'í scriptures. The best short discussion of the
Bahá'í position on environmental issues is Robert White's
"Spiritual Foundations for an Ecologically Sustainable Society," in Journal
of Bahá'í Studies, 2.1 (1989), reprinted in The
Bahá'í World: An International Record, 1992-93. A longer
discussion of the environmental crisis from a Bahá'í perspective
may be found in Arthur Lyon Dahl's Unless and Until: A Bahá'í
Focus on the Environment. Dahl summarizes many of his ideas in "The World
Order of Nature," published in Charles Lerche, ed., Emergence, 161-74.
There is also a compilation of Bahá'í scripture on the
environment; a position paper; and pamphlets published on the
Bahá'í approach to the environment. Roxanne Lalonde discusses
environmental ethics in "Unity in Diversity: A Conceptual Framework for a
Global Ethic of Environmental Sustainability," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 6.3 (Sept.-Dec. 1994), topics John J. Coleman
also presents in "Protecting Humanity and Its Environment: A
Bahá'í Perspective," in World Order, 26.2 (Winter
1994-95). Craig Loehle comments on spiritual aspects of ecology in On the
Shoulders of Giants, 40-67. Cooperative Peace Strategies, a
collection of papers related to the subject of world peace edited by John
Davidson and Marjorie Tidman for the Association for Bahá'í
Studies of Australia, includes articles on agriculture and the environment.
Michael Sours finds some of the modern attitudes to the environment reflective
of underlying religious conceptions in "Bah'a'í Cosmological Symbolism
and the Ecofeminist Critique," in Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 7:1 (March-June 1995).
¶20. Epistemology: The Bahá'í Theory and Sources of
Knowledge
The Bahá'í Faith emphasizes independent investigation of truth,
that each individual must explore reality by him/herself, drawing judgments
about what to believe independently of tradition and ancestral beliefs.
Investigation is described spiritually in terms of the attitudes one should
have to investigate impartially and successfully (freedom from bias, patience,
open-mindedness, honesty, etc.). The Bahá'í Faith also says that
investigation via nature and the scientific method, or via religion and the
truths of revelation, are equally valid and must be balanced. For a discussion
of the subject of science and religion, see that entry.
Bahá'u'lláh discusses investigation of truth particularly in two
places in his writings; in his "Tablet of Wisdom" (Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh, 239-47 and Tablets 135-152) and in the
"Tablet of the True Seeker," from the Kitáb-i-Íqán
192-194 (also found in Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 131-33,
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 503-5, and Gleanings,
CXXV). 'Abdu'l-Bahá discusses the "four methods acquiring of knowledge"
in Some Answered Questions, 297-99.
Esslemont, 201-3 Huddleston, 49-54
Faizi, 38-42, 63-4 Momen, 96
Ferraby, 124-26 Smith 1987, 84, 155
Hatcher and Martin, 86-87
The best short treatment of Bahá'í epistemology is Nader Saiedi's
"Faith, Reason, and Society in Bahá'í Perspective," in World
Order, 21.3/4 (Spring/Summer 1987), 9-22. Jack McLean's "The Knowledge of
God: An Essay in Bahá'í Epistemology," in World Order,
12.3 (Spring 1978) discusses the various ways of knowing listed in the
Bahá'í scriptures, with reference to Auguste Comte and William
James. Jalil Mahmoudi's "'Irfán, Gnosis, or Mystical Knowledge," in
World Order, 7.4 (Summer 1973), considers the intuitive sources of
knowledge. William Hatcher's Logic and Logos explores the relationship
between revelation and reason. Moojan Momen's "Relativism: A Basis for
Bahá'í Metaphysics," in Moojan Momen, ed., Studies in Honor of
the Late Hasan M. Balyuzi: Studies in the Bábí and
Bahá'í Religions, volume 5, 185-218, explores the role of
relativism in reconciling Bahá'í teachings--formed in a
Judeo-Christian-Islamic environment--with Hindu and Buddhist ideas. Though not
strictly on epistemology, Bahíyyih Nakhjavání's
Asking Questions: A Challenge to Fundamentalism discusses many relevant
aspects of scholarship and independent investigation of truth.
¶21. Ethics
Bahá'u'lláh taught that, since leading a proper life while
on the earth is requisite for one's spiritual development, purely metaphysical
pursuits as sometimes practiced by the religious must be abandoned in favor of
practical, worldly morality. Mundane ethical qualities such as proper
interpersonal conduct thus receive as high an emphasis in the
Bahá'í writings as do transcendent spiritual ones.
The Hidden Words (Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 33-59),
though containing numerous and varied themes, is often considered to be
primarily an "ethical" work.
Ferraby, 110-1 Smith 1996, 65
Smith 1987, 64
Udo Schaefer addresses the disintegration of much of modern society and the
need for revitalized morality in his "Ethics for a Global Society," in
Bahá'í Studies Review, 4.1 (1994). His follow-up article
"The New Morality," in Bahá'í Studies Review, 5:1 (1995),
outlines some basic categories and types in Bahá'u'lláh's system
of ethics. He goes into greater depth in In a Blue Haze: On the Ethics of
Smoking, in which he uses the discourgaed but not forbidden activity of
smoking as a test case to examine the wider contexts and meanings of
Bahá'í ethics. H. T. D. Rost examines the ethic of the "Golden
Rule" as it is found in all of the world's major religions, concluding with a
Bahá'í summation, in The Golden Rule: A Universal Ethic.
Toward the Most Great Justice: Elements of Justice in the New World Order,
edited by Charles Lerche, includes a few articles that are either
directly or indirectly on subjects of ethics. Arash Abizadeh's short but
incisive "Because Bahá'u'lláh Said So: dealing with a non-starter
in moral reasoning," in Bahá'í Studies Review, 5:1 (1995),
examines and criticizes some of the ways Bahá'ís might tend to
justify ethical injunctions.
¶22. Family Life: Marriage, Divorce, and Sexuality
Bahá'ís see the family as being the core unit of society, and
teach that only strong and healthy families can allow for a functioning
society. In light of this, the Bahá'í scriptures strongly
emphasize the importance of marriage, having children, and rearing children to
worship God.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 162-63 (Synopsis and
Codification extracts 8 and 12 / Aqdas paragraphs 48 and 63); 47
(Persian Hidden Words, 80-82); 234-35 (seventh Ishráq, in
Tablets 128); 'Abdu'l-Bahá discusses these and related matters in
Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá, 117-45. Prayers for
marriage, children, and family can be found in Bahá'í
Prayers. Six compilations of Bahá'í writings on family life,
marriage and divorce are Bahá'í Marriage and Family Life:
Selections from the Writings of the Bahá'í Faith;
Marriage: A Fortress for Well-Being (complete with useful commentary);
A Chaste and Holy Life; Family Life; Extracts from the Bahá'í
Teachings Discouraging Divorce, and Preserving Bahá'í
Marriages, the latter four of which are reprinted in Compilation of
Compilations, volumes I and II. Scriptural passages on family life,
marriage, and divorce are included in Lights of Guidance, 218-32,
358-64, and 368-402. Unrestrained as the Wind is a full compilation of
passages relating to youth concerns, such as education, sexuality, drug use,
social relationships, and spirituality.
Esslemont, 150-53, 175-78 Huddleston, 90-109
Faizi, 65-6 Momen, 25-9, 88-9
Ferraby, 278-80 Smith 1987, 34-5, 46-7, 92-3, 198
Hatcher and Martin, 158-60 Smith 1996, 35, 73, 76
FAMILY LIFE
Bahá'ís have written many popular works on family life, marriage,
and divorce, including Khalil and Susan Khavari's Creating a Successful
Family and Together Forever: A Handbook for Creating a Successful
Marriage; Madeline Hellaby's Education in the Bahá'í
Family, which also includes sections on the differing roles of different
family members; a chapter in Rúhíyyih Rabbani's Prescription
for Living; and Patricia Wilcox's Bahá'í Families:
Perspectives, Principles, Practice, a good and insightful addition to the
genre. A work of scholarship relating to family life is Hossain Danesh's
"The Violence-Free Society: A Gift for Our Children" (Bahá'í
Studies, 6). An entire volume of papers on marriage has been published by
the Association for Bahá'í Studies titled The Divine
Institution of Marriage in Bahá'í Studies Notebook,
3.1/2 (March 1983). A short summary of the reciprocal relations among
family members may be found in Hoda Mahmoudi and Richard Dabell, "Rights and
Responsibilities in the Bahá'í Family System" (Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 5.2 (June-Sept. 1992) 1-12); a longer and
more specific study is John Hatcher's "The Equality of Women: The
Bahá'í Principle of Complementarity," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 2.3 (1989-1990), reprinted as "Some Thoughts
on Gender Distinction in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas: The
Bahá'í Principle of Complementarity," in The Law of Love
Enshrined: Selected Essays. Linda O'Neil has offered useful comments on
this article in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 2.4
(1989-1990).
SEXUALITY
Publications regarding chastity and sexuality include one of the only studies
of family planning issues, Mehri Samandari Jensen's detailed sociological and
demographic analysis "Religion and Family Planning in Contemporary Iran," in
Peter Smith, In Iran: Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í
History, volume 3. Another good article on an insufficiently-studied topic,
Sharon Hatcher Kennedy and Andrew Kennedy's "Bahá'í Youth and
Sexuality: A Personal/Professional View," in Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 1.1 (1988-1989), relates current attitudes about sexuality and
chastity in the Bahá'í versus the non-Bahá'í world
and offers counsel for Bahá'í youth. Agnes Ghaznavi's
Sexuality, Relationships, and Spiritual Growth discusses sexuality and
chastity as they relate to the spiritual and physical sides of marriage. Susan
Lamb's review of this book, in Bahá'í Studies Review, 5:1
(1995), argues that this and most other Bahá'í presentations of
and attitudes about sexuality are "downright squeamish" and "depressing."
Geoffrey Parrinder's Sexual Morality in the World's Religions includes a
few brief discussions of Bahá'í teachings.
¶23. Fasting
Muslims frequently describe prayer and fasting as twin pillars of religion, a
description that Bahá'u'lláh apparently endorses (see Writings
of Bahá'u'lláh, 76 and
Kitáb-i-Íqán 39-40). The Bahá'í Fast
involves abstinence from all eating, drinking, and smoking from sunrise to
sunset from 2 March through 20 March. Exempt from the fast are children; the
elderly; the ill; women who are pregnant, menstruating, or nursing; travelers;
and those performing heavy work. Its purpose is to reemphasize the import of
things spiritual over things material, or, as Shoghi Effendi says, to "refresh
and reinvigorate the spiritual forces latent in the soul" (Lights of
Guidance 233).
Duane Herrmann's Fasting: The Sun and its Moons: A Bahá'í
Handbook, which includes fasting prayers, is a very useful
compilation of Bahá'í scriptures on the fast.
Bahá'u'lláh revealed some prayers related to fasting. Though
principally intended for devotion, they also provide insight into the place of
fasting in Bahá'í theology and its significance to
Bahá'ís. These prayers are in Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh, 576-80 (Prayers and Meditations, 79-86)
and Bahá'í Prayers 238-261. Details on fasting are
provided in Lights of Guidance 233-235. Most of the laws and directives
concerning it are found in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, especially
paragraphs 10, 16, and 17; Questions and Answers nos. 22 36, 71, 75-6, and 93;
Synopsis and Codification section IV.B; and Notes, pages 170-179 passim.
Esslemont, 182-4 Huddleston, 61-2
Ferraby, 283-4 Momen, 87-8
Hatcher and Martin, 157
While a few popular items on fasting have been written, the only scholarly
presentation of it is John Walbridge's comparison of the Muslim and the
Bahá'í fasts in Sacred Acts, Sacred Space, Sacred Time,
67-71.
¶24. Feasts, Calendar, and Holy Days
FEAST
An understanding of the Bahá'í community's meetings is vital in
understanding the religion. Once every nineteen days, the first day (or the
evening before the first day, since the Bahá'í day begins at
sunset) of each Bahá'í month, all of the Bahá'ís of
a locality are invited to a feast at the local Bahá'í center or
an individual's house. Feasts are divided into three parts: first, prayers and
devotional readings from the Bahá'í writings and other religions
are chanted or read; second, the Bahá'ís consult, primarily on
matters of community business and teaching projects; third, the members of the
community socialize. Though the host will usually serve refreshments in the
social portion, the feast is so named because devotionals and socializing with
the community are food for the spirit.
Bahá'u'lláh inaugurates the institution of the feast in the
Kitáb-i-Aqdas, paragraph 57, which is further defined in
Questions and Answers no. 48 and Note 82. Lights of Guidance 239-246
presents a full selection of excerpts about the feast. There are two
compilations of Bahá'í scriptures of Bahá'u'lláh,
'Abdu'l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi, and the Universal House of Justice on the
subject: Bahá'í Meetings: The Nineteen Day Feast, and
The Nineteen Day Feast, in Compilation of Compilations volume
I.
Esslemont, 182-3 Huddleston, 102-3
Ferraby, 282 Momen, 67-8
Hatcher and Martin, 151-2
CALENDAR
The Bahá'í Faith has its own calendar of nineteen months of
nineteen days each. Each month is named after an attribute of God; furthermore,
each day of the month is named for an attribute of God, as is each day of the
week. Thus all time, in a sense, has been made into sacred time. This calendar,
technically termed the Badí' ("unique," "wonderful") calendar,
was established by the Báb and approved and slightly modified by
Bahá'u'lláh. It is--unlike the Muslim calendar--a solar calendar,
timed to begin with the March 21 spring equinox. The Bahá'í names
of the various days, months, and years are given in every volume of the
Bahá'í World up through Volume XVIII
(1979-1983).
Bahá'u'lláh defines the Bahá'í calendar in the
Kitáb-i-Aqdas, paragraphs 16 and 127, Questions and Answers no.
35, and Notes 26-7, 138-9, and 147-8.
Esslemont, 16, 178-9 Huddleston, 127-8
Faizi, 104-6 Momen, 73-4
Ferraby, 280-82 Smith 1987, 35
Hatcher and Martin, 151 Smith 1996, 35
HOLY DAYS
Nine days of the Bahá'í calendar are singled out as holy days on
which work should be suspended and children should not attend school. These
include Naw-Rúz (the March 21 New Year), anniversaries of births
and deaths of the Báb and Bahá'u'lláh, and the
declarations of the Báb and Bahá'u'lláh. There are no
prescribed rituals or ceremonies for these days, but communities usually hold
devotions and, in the case of the days of declaration and Naw-Rúz,
celebrations. Another time Bahá'ís celebrate is
Ayyám-i-Há, "Days of Há," the four or five
intercalary days preceding the month of fast when Bahá'ís host
social gatherings and give gifts (so named because the abjad numbering
of the Arabic letter há is 5). The festival of
Ayyám-i-Há, though not sacred, is a special time for the
Bahá'í community.
Bahá'u'lláh discusses some of the Bahá'í holy days
in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, paragraphs 16 and 110-1, Questions and
Answers nos. 1-2 and 35-6, and Notes 25-6 and 138-9.
Esslemont, 181-86 Hatcher and Martin, 151
Faizi, 117-9 Huddleston, 128-9
Ferraby, 282-283 Momen, 74
John Walbridge's Sacred Acts, Sacred Space, Sacred Time touches upon all
of the above. This collection of articles devotes a chapter each to "The
Bahá'í Calendar" and "Bahá'í Festivals," in which
he presents historical and philosophical observations on the system and
significances of the Bahá'í calendar and history and descriptions
of all the festivals and holy days. Kalimát Press is producing a series
of books on the holy days which consist of collections of sacred writings and
other contemporary accounts in events; thus far they have released The
Ascension of Bahá'u'lláh, Days of Ridván, The Declaration
of the Báb, The Martyrdom of the Báb, Naw-Rúz: New
Day, The Passing of 'Abdu'l-Bahá, and Twin Holy Days (the
births of the Báb and Bahá'u'lláh). Two further
books, Ayyám-i-Há and the Fast and Day of the
Covenant, are forthcoming.
¶25. Female Imagery / Maid of Heaven
A clue to the importance of female qualities for the revelation of
Bahá'u'lláh and his new world order--one which
'Abdu'l-Bahá said would be "more permeated with the feminine ideals"
(Lights of Guidance, 615)--is offered by the imagery of the Maid of
Heaven. The Báb referred to himself as the Maid of Heaven bringing the
new revelation (Selections from the Writings of the Báb, 54). For
Bahá'u'lláh, the Maiden was the bringer of the revelation in much
the same way as Gabriel brought the Annunciation to Mary and the Qur'án
to Muhammad. In places, the Maiden was the personified symbol for the
revelation itself. Another feminine religious symbol is the Islamic notion of
the "Mother Book," which in Bahá'u'lláh's language is more often
the "Mother Word" or the "Mother Tablet."
Bahá'u'lláh writes of the Maid of Heaven in Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh, 511-12 (Gleanings, 282-4) and 46
(Hidden Words Persian #77, also preserved as Gleanings, 91-2).
Shoghi Effendi quotes Bahá'u'lláh's description of the Maiden's
revelation to him in God Passes By, 101-2 and 121-122. Most of
Bahá'u'lláh's tablets featuring this imagery have not yet been
published in authoritative translation.
Adib Taherzadeh explains in a few places some of the significances of the Maid
of Heaven for Bahá'u'lláh, including Revelation of
Bahá'u'lláh, volume 1, 82-3, 213, 218, 242; volume 3, 143,
223-4; and volume 4, 16-7. The published scholarship on the topic includes
Michael W. Sours' "The Maid of Heaven, the Image of Sophia, and the Logos
Personification of the Spirit of God in Scripture and Sacred Literature," in
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 4.1 (Mar.-June 1991); Paula A.
Drewek's "Feminine Forms of the Divine in Bahá'í Scripture," in
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 5.1 (Mar.-June 1992); and Lil
Abdo's "Female Representations of the Holy Spirit," in Bahá'í
Studies Review, 4.1 (1994). John Walbridge discusses the symbolism of the
Maiden as found in some as-yet untranslated tablets in Sacred Acts, Sacred
Space, Sacred Time, 158-164, 166-7, and 239. Ross Woodman examines feminine
imagery and mystical union in "In the Beginning Was the Word: Apocalypse and
the Education of the Soul," in Journal of Bahá'í Studies,
5.4 (Dec. 1993-Mar. 1994).
¶26. Funds and the Huqúqu'lláh
Two principles underlie the Bahá'í attitude about donating money,
or zakát, to the administrative order. One is that
Bahá'u'lláh clearly emphasized the need for just distribution of
wealth, a tenet that 'Abdu'l-Bahá elevated to the status of a
fundamental principle. The Bahá'í teachings do not advocate a
complete financial egalitarianism, for the possession of wealth, financial or
otherwise, is seen as a divine gift--Bahá'u'lláh wrote that God
created us rich (Hidden Words, Arabic #13). Rather, the existence of
extremes of wealth and poverty must be eliminated; 'Abdu'l-Bahá said
that any time poverty is seen to reach a certain level, "it is a sure sign that
somewhere we shall find tyranny." (Paris Talks, 153). An individual may
seek to rectify economic injustice by giving direct assistance to the poor, but
providing charity also one of the functions of the administrative order.
Another principle is that, since wealth is a gift of God, donating that wealth
is a privilege. Hence, only Bahá'ís are allowed to contribute
money to the administrative order. If one who is not a Bahá'í is
aware of this and yet insists upon donating money, his or her money is used for
charitable, but not Bahá'í, purposes.
Bahá'u'lláh mentions some of the Bahá'í attitudes
towards wealth in the Hidden Words (Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh, 33-59), including the Arabic 11, 13, 56,
and the Persian 11, 49, 51, 53-4, and Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh, 233 (Ishráqát, in
Tablets 132-4). 'Abdu'l-Bahá talked about the chimera of complete
financial equality versus the reality of just distribution of wealth in
Paris Talks, 151-4, and quotations from the other primary figures and
the Universal House of Justice on the topic are presented in Light of
Guidance, 120-5 and 548-51. Compilations of writings on the
Bahá'í fund are Lights of Guidance, 249-65, Lifeblood
of the Cause (Funds), in Compilation of Compilations, volume I,
Bahá'í Funds and Contributions, and
Bahá'í Funds: Contributions and Administration.
Esslemont, 21, 142-6 Hatcher and Martin, 152, 177-8
Ferraby, 271-2 Huddleston, 141-4
THE BAHA'I FUND
Gloria Faizi's Stories about Bahá'í Funds is a collection
of inspirational anecdotes about giving. Patrick Barker's Created Rich: How
Spiritual Attitudes and Material Means Work Together to Achieve Prosperity
is a relatively scholarly and detailed work on the Bahá'í
treatment of money and the Bahá'í funds. Margit Warburg's brief
research note "Economic Rituals: The Structure and Meaning of Donations in the
Baha'i Religion," in Social Compass 40 (1993), is the only purely
academic piece on the Bahá'í fund.
HUQÚQU'LLÁH
In the Kitáb-i-Aqdas Bahá'u'lláh instituted a tax
system by which believers with sufficient means make a contribution to the head
of the Faith--which since the death of Shoghi Effendi is the Universal House of
Justice--called Huqúqu'lláh, "Right of God." As
zakát is based on the preexisting Islamic institution of
zakát (see Kitáb-i-Aqdas, Questions and Answers no.
107), so is Huqúqu'lláh similar to the Shí'í
khums, in which 1/5 of an individual's wealth is donated.
Bahá'u'lláh has reduced the size of the tax to 19%, a
Bahá'í holy number, and explicitly outlined its details.
Huqúqu'lláh is yet another means to both fund the Faith and to
share wealth justly. Only one's discretionary income, i.e. the money left over
after all debts and necessities have been deducted, is taxed. This tax is
wholly voluntary, for one calculates its amount and pays it only how and when
one chooses. Further, the primary payment of Huqúqu'lláh is made
only once in one's lifetime, taxes on any further increases in wealth being
paid at the individual's discretion.
Bahá'u'lláh instituted Huqúqu'lláh in the
Kitáb-i-Aqdas, paragraph 97. Its details are further clarified in
Questions and Answers nos. 8-9, 42, 44-5, 69, 80, 89-90, 95, and 102 and Notes
nos. 47 and 125. Compilations of quotations regarding and explaining it are
Huqúqu'lláh, reprinted in Compilation of
Compilations, volume I, and Lights of Guidance, 304-8.
Ferraby, 271-2, 277 Momen, 66
Little scholarly work has been done on Huqúqu'lláh. However,
Gloria Faizi's Stories about Bahá'í Funds includes a
chapter of anecdotes about it. Patrick Barker offers a number of observations
of the import and meaning of Huqúqu'lláh in Created Rich: How
Spiritual Attitudes and Material Means Work Together to Achieve Prosperity.
Adib Taherzadeh also explains it in Revelation of
Bahá'u'lláh, volume 4, 248-56. The fullest, though still
short, academic exploration of Huqúqu'lláh and its historical
precedents is chapter 3 in John Walbridge's Sacred Acts, Sacred Space,
Sacred Time.
¶27. Gender Issues and Equality
Bahá'u'lláh and 'Abdu'l-Bahá both emphasized the equality
of men and women and stated that women had a right to an education and to
training in a vocation. The roles of men and women are not seen as the same as
much as complementary (see, for example, 'Abdu'l-Bahá on the chimera of
complete equality in Paris Talks, 152). Much effort remains to be made
in the Bahá'í community to achieve the ideals that the
Bahá'í scriptures have defined. Scholarship, though, is quite
active on this topic.
Women: Extracts from the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh,
'Abdu'l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi, and the Universal House of Justice
provides many statements from the Bahá'í scriptures about women
and gender roles. This is reprinted as Women, in Compilation of
Compilations, volume II. See also Lights of Guidance, 612-22. The
National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States
has released an official statement, "Two Wings of a Bird: The Equality of Men
and Women," printed in World Order, 28.3 (Spring 1997).
Esslemont, 146-50 Momen, 37-40
Ferraby, 94-95 Smith 1987, 46-7, 50-1, 92, 152, 178-9
Hatcher and Martin, 8-90 Smith 1996, 87, 127-8, 135, 143
Huddleston, 87-90
GENERAL
A starting point in the study of the Bahá'í perspective of gender
is Trevor R. J. Finch's "Unclipping the Wings: A Survey of Secondary Literature
in English on Bahá'í Perspectives on Women," in
Bahá'í Studies Review, 4.1 (1994). Finch presents a
well-annotated bibliography of some of the more important Bahá'í
works dealing with gender and women's issues written in the past twenty years.
Publications devoted to the study of the roles of women or gender issues
include the Fall 1995 issue of World Order, 27.1, which is devoted to
the topic of gender equality and complementarity. It includes Marilyn J. Ray's
examination from a feminist perspective, "Women and Men: Toward Achieving
Complementarity"; Martha Leach Schweitz's "Of Webs and Ladders: Gender Equality
in Bahá'í Law"; and Jane J. Russell's "Spiritual Vertigo at the
Edge of Gender Equality." The published proceedings of the Association for
Bahá'í Studies of Australia's 1989 conference "The Role of Women
in an Advancing Civilization," edited by Sitarih 'Ala'i and Colleen Dawes,
includes a few useful articles on a variety of topics. Equal Circles: Women
and Men in the Bahá'í Community, ed. Peggy Caton, is another
collection of articles, including pieces on the myth of male superiority, the
year of patience, violence, and racism.
HISTORICAL
Ann Boyles surveys the history of Bahá'í activities to realize
gender equality in "Towards the Goal of Full Partnership: One Hundred and Fifty
Years of the Advancement of Women," in The Bahá'í World: An
International Record, 1993-94. Anne Gordon Atkinson briefly examines the
history of the presentation of and participation by women in art in "Women in
Art," in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 4.2 (June-Sept. 1991).
Baharieh Rouhani Ma'ani's "The Interdependence of Bahá'í
Communities: Services of North American Bahá'í Women to Iran," in
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 4.1 (Mar.-June 1991), is a
historical survey of prominent American women and their interactions with the
Iranian Bahá'í community. Susan Stiles Maneck has explored the
question of Táhirih, a prominent Bábí woman, as a role
model in "Táhirih: A Religious Paradigm of Womanhood," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 2.2 (1989-1990): 39-54.
EQUALITY
A provocative article about the subject of the roles of men and women is Linda
and John Walbridge, "Bahá'í Laws on the Status of Men," in
World Order, 19.1/2 (Fall 1984/Winter 1984-85). It and Sen McGlinn's
"Some Considerations Relating to Inheritance Laws," in Bahá'í
Studies Review, 5:1 (1995), each examine the gender differentiation in the
inheritance laws as laid out in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas. Partly in
response to the Walbridge's "Bahá'í Laws," dialogue
devoted an issue to "A Question of Gender: A Forum on the Status of Men in
Bahá'í Laws," in dialogue 2:1 (Summer/Fall 1987). Six
authors--Susan Stiles-Maneck, R. Jackson Armstrong-Ingram, Julie Pascoe and Jim
Bartee, Baharieh Ma'ani, and Anthony Lee--responded with commentary and further
discussion. John Hatcher's "The Equality of Women: The Bahá'í
Principle of Complementarity," in Journal of Bahá'í Studies,
2.3 (1989-1990), reprinted as "Some Thoughts on Gender Distinction in the
Kitáb-i-Aqdas: The Bahá'í Principle of
Complementarity," in The Law of Love Enshrined: Selected Essays presents
many considerations on this issue, as does Linda O'Neil's commentary on his
article in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 2.4 (1989-1990). A
well-written presentation of the Bahá'í principle of equality of
men and women is Constance Conrader's "Women: Attaining their Birthright," in
World Order, 21.1/2 (Fall 1986/Winter 1986-1987). The Spring 1975 issue
of World Order (9.3) was devoted to the rights of women. Hoda Mahmoudi's
"From Oppression to Equality: The Emergence of the Feminist Perspective," in
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 1.3 (1989), analyzes
Bahá'í teachings on gender equality in contrast with current
feminist thought, and her "The Role of Men in Establishing the Equality of
Women," in World Order, 26.3 (Spring 1995), examines social attitudes
leading to oppression and ways to reform them. Janet Huggins' "Exploring Male
Oppression from a Family-Systems Perspective," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 3.2 (1990-1991), explores sexual inequality
from a family-systems perspective. Moojan Momen's "In All the Ways that Matter,
Women Don't Count," in Bahá'í Studies Review, 4.1 (1994),
advances that the solution to achieving gender equality is not simply to
equalize the gender roles but to produce a wholly new, and more feminine,
society. Lata Ta'eed discusses the nature of gender as it impacts on and shapes
individual personality in "Sex, Gender, and New Age Stereotyping," in
Bahá'í Studies Review, 4.1 (1994).
¶28. God, Concept of
The Bahá'í Faith sees God as a personal God, to whom one can pray
and with whom one can commune, but acknowledges that God is much more than
anything humans can experience. It conceives of God as an unknowable essence,
which is manifested in the world through its attributes, such as love, power,
mercy, and forgiveness. Bahá'u'lláh, however, warns that God is
"sanctified above all attributes and holy above all names"
(Bahá'í Prayers, 12), and thus that the essence of God
will always remain inscrutable to humans.
Since almost the entirety of Bahá'u'lláh's and
'Abdu'l-Bahá's writings discuss the Bahá'í concept of God,
only one succinct definition will be listed here: the opening pages of part two
of the Kitáb-i-Íqán, 98-100, reprinted in
Gleanings, XIX-XX and Writings of Bahá'u'lláh,
406-7. Brief comments are in Lights of Guidance, 477-9.
Esslemont, 201-3 Huddleston, 29-35
Faizi, 27-29 Momen, 91-103
Ferraby, 33-36 Smith 1996, 37, 64-5
Hatcher and Martin, 74-75, 123-26
An excellent, analytical summary of the Bahá'í concept of God can
be found in Juan Cole's "The Concept of the Manifestation in the
Bahá'í Writings," Bahá'í Studies, no. 9,
3-10. A detailed and careful discussion of the Bahá'í concept of
God is the central theme of Julio Savi's The Eternal Quest for God.
William Hatcher has explored scientific and philosophical "proofs" for the
existence of God in "From Metaphysics and Logic," in Logic and Logos,
and "A Scientific Proof of the Existence of God," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 5.4 (Dec. 1993-Mar. 1994). Craig Loehle
discusses a few arguments for the existence of God in On the Shoulders of
Giants, 176-90.
THE SACRED AND THE HOLY
The best way to capture the Bahá'í concept of the sacred is by
reading Bahá'í prayers about the greatness and mysterious nature
of God; doctrinal statements do not convey the feeling appropriate to this
subject. The Seven Valleys (Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh, 3-18) also contains many descriptions of God and
of the experience of God, and thus constitutes a kind of description of the
sacred.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 387-88 (Gleanings, I);
412-16 (Gleanings, XXVI, XXVII); 596-601 (Prayers and
Meditations, LXXV-LXXX).
¶29. Health, Healing, and Medicine
Bahá'u'lláh specified that one should seek out the advice of a
competent physician; 'Abdu'l-Bahá added that both spiritual and physical
healing exist and should both be used. 'Abdu'l-Bahá also spoke about the
future role of diet in preventive medicine and emphasized the future importance
of vegetarian diets.
'Abdu'l-Bahá, Selections from the Writings of
'Abdu'l-Bahá, 146-58; Some Answered Questions, 254-59. A
compilation of Bahá'í scriptures on health and healing was
published by Elias Zohoori under the title The Throne of the Inner
Temple; a compilation by the Research Department of the Universal House of
Justice, Selections from the Bahá'í Writings on Some Aspects
of Health, Healing, Nutrition, and Related Matters is in both
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 3.1 (June 1984) and
Compilation of Compilations, volume I. Lights of Guidance has a
section on health, 275-98.
Esslemont, 101-15 Huddleston, 60-68
Ferraby, 153-55 Momen, 23-4
Stephen Lambden and Khazeh Fananapazir have translated
Bahá'u'lláh's compendium of medical advice "Tablet to the
Physician," including detailed notes and possible influences, in
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 6:4-7:2 (October 1992). Useful
collections of essays on health appeared in the Special Issue on Health
of Bahá'í Studies Notebook, 2.1 (April 1981) and
Selected Proceedings from Bahá'í International Health Agency
Conferences, in Bahá'í Studies Notebook, 4.1 (August
1985). An excellent summary of the Bahá'í approach to health is
Hossain Danesh's "Health and Healing," in World Order, 13.3 (Spring
1979).
¶30. Hermeneutics and Interpretation
Hermeneutics is the science and methodology of interpretation of scripture (as
compared with "exegesis," which is the systematic interpretation itself).
Different religious traditions offer different approaches to hermeneutics. The
Bahá'í writings offer a system of interpretation also, one that
has not yet been studied in detail.
Bahá'u'lláh devotes a considerable amount of the
Kitáb-I-Íqán to explicating the nature of religious
symbolism and ways to interpret metaphors. 'Abdu'l-Bahá discusses
interpretations of Christian symbolism in many places in Some Answered
Questions, especially pages 122-126.
The classic Bahá'í text on hermeneutics is Mírzá
Abu'l-Fadl's Miracles and Metaphors, in which he examines the literal
and figurative interpretations of scripture. Dann May's "A Preliminary Survey
of Hermeneutical Principles Found within the Bahá'í Writings," in
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 1.3 (1989) and Juan Cole's
"Interpretation in the Bahá'í Faith," in Bahá'í
Studies Review, 5:1 (1995) are the two best articles on hermeneutics. Each
describes various hermeneutical and exegetical approaches to
Bahá'í scripture and their practice in the Bahá'í
community. Michael Sours explores some Bahá'í approaches to
interpretation in "Seeing with the Eye of God: Relationships Between Theology
and Interpretation," in Bahá'í Studies Review, 1.1 (1991).
Seena Fazel and Khazeh Fananapazir also address this, though in less depth, in
"Some Interpretive Principles in the Bahá'í Writings," in
Bahá'í Studies Review, 2.1 (1992). Steven Scholl discusses
some aspects of the relationship between scholarly objectivity and
hermeneutical methodologies in "More Problems...Scientific Method or a Total
Hermeneutics?" in Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 2.2 (Sept.
1983). Robert Stockman includes a chapter on early American
Bahá'í hermeneutics of the Bible in his doctoral dissertation,
The Bahá'í Faith and American Protestantism. Chris Buck's
Symbol and Secret: Studies in the Bábí and
Bahá'í Religions, volume 7 presents a detailed examination of
exegetical and hermeneutical techniques Bahá'u'lláh used in his
Kitáb-i-Íqán and demonstrates the ways in which the
Íqán can be seen as an example of tafsír, or
Qur'án commentary. Similarly, Juan Cole provides a somewhat
postmodernist reading of Bahá'í texts to examine the
hermeneutical techniques Bahá'u'lláh used in forwarding his
claims to world messiahship and demonstrate the truth of unity of religions in
"'`I am All the Prophets': The Poetics of Pluralism in Baha'i Texts," in
Poetics Today 14:3 (Fall 1993). John Hatcher's lengthy and detailed
The Ocean of His Words: A Reader's Guide to the Art of
Bahá'u'lláh discusses ways of arriving at meanings in
Bahá'u'lláh's writings using techniques of formal literary
analysis.
¶31. History and Historiography
No comprehensive history of the Bahá'í Faith from the beginning
to the present has been composed. Peter Smith's The Bábí and
Bahá'í Religions: From Messianic
Shí'ism to a World Religion, an introductory
work on the Bahá'í Faith from a sociological perspective, comes
closest to offering such a treatment. His A Short History of the
Bahá'í Faith is a condensed but also good version of this
book. Shoghi Effendi's God Passes By offers a narrative history of the
first century of the Faith (1844-1944) and is characterized by careful use of
the sources available at the time, and a theological perspective on
Bahá'í history that only Shoghi Effendi, as head and official
interpreter of the Bahá'í Faith, could provide. One of the
firsthistories of the Babi and bahai religons was provided by
Mírzá Abu'l-Fadl Golpáygání in his A
Short Sketch of the History and Lives of the Leaders of this Religion,
published with another essay under the title Bahá'í
Proofs.
The issue of historiography has as of yet been little studied. Moojan Momen's
"Learning from History," in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 2.2
(1989-1990), offers some preliminary thoughts about the lessons of
Bahá'í history. Sen McGlinn briefly addresses
Bahá'í versus Marxist and Liberation theology interpretations of
Western history in "Towards the Enlightened Society," in
Bahá'í Studies Review, 4.1 (1994). Geoffrey Nash discusses
a variety of historiographical topics in The Phoenix and the Ashes: The
Bahá'í Faith and the Modern Apocalypse, esp. pages 66-103.
¶32. Holy Places, Bahá'í (World Centre and the
Arc)
The Bahá'í World Centre is located in Haifa and 'Akká in
northern Israel. Bahá'u'lláh was exiled to the latter, and the
former was the largest city nearby, as well as the location of Mount Carmel, a
mountain that figures prominently in biblical prophecy. Among the holy places
in those cities are The Shrine of the Báb, a mausoleum where the
Báb is buried, and where 'Abdu'l-Bahá is temporarily buried as
well; The Shrine of Bahá'u'lláh outside 'Akká,
where Bahá'u'lláh is buried; various houses where
Bahá'u'lláh lived, and various gardens where he often went to
escape the bustle of town life; the graves of Bahá'u'lláh's wife,
daughter, and son; the grave of 'Abdu'l-Bahá's wife; and the Arc,
a series of five buildings on the side of Mount Carmel which are now in their
finishing stages of construction. The Arc is so named because its major
buildings are laid out in a semi-circle. In English the Arc is sometimes
confused with "the Ark," a symbol for the covenant of
Bahá'u'lláh. This confusion is exacerbated by the fact that, in
the Tablet of Carmel, Bahá'u'lláh wrote that God will sail
his "ark" upon the mountain, which now features the "arc" of the world
center.
In addition to these sites, Bahá'ís recognize as holy the House
of Bahá'u'lláh in Baghdad, (which is currently closed to
the Bahá'ís by the government authorities); the House of the
Báb in Shíráz, which was demolished shortly after
the Iranian revolution; and various other houses of Bahá'u'lláh
in Iran and Turkey.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 173-74 (Tablet of Carmel, in
Tablets pp. 3-5); 435-37 (Gleanings, LVII-LVIII); 679-81 (Tablet
of Visitation, in Prayers and Meditations 310-313).
Esslemont, 250-1 Momen, 72-3, 127
Ferraby, 228-31, 272-3 Smith 1987, 162, 198-9
Hatcher and Martin, 64, 180 Smith 1996, 112, 119-20, 124, 137
The best summaries of the sites at the Bahá'í World Centre are
Eunice Braun and Hugh Chance, A Crown of Beauty: The Bahá'í
Faith and the Holy Land and David S. Ruhe, Door of Hope: A Century of
the Bahá'í Faith in the Holy Land. Both were written to
assist Bahá'í pilgrims: both have extensive quotations from the
Bahá'í writings are amply illustrated with color pictures. One of
the most extensive descriptions of the building of the Bahá'í
World Center can be found in Ugo Giachery's Shoghi Effendi: Recollections,
where Giachery describes much of the history of the designing and the
building of the center's buildings and gardens. The non-Bahá'í
French journalists Colette Gouvion and Philippe Jouvion wrote a short but
interesting account of their impressions of the Bahá'í World
Center in the opening of The Gardeners of God: An Encounter with Five
Million Bahá'ís.
¶33. Houses of Worship
(Mashriqu'l-Adhkár)
Every local Bahá'í community, in the future, is to have a
Mashriqu'l-Adhkár, a
"Dawning Place of the Mention (lit. "Remembrance") of God." This institution
will have, at its center, a house of worship, a nine-sided building with
nine doors, topped with a dome, and surrounded by gardens, where people can
pray; in addition, it is to have a series of dependencies such as a hospital,
senior citizen's home, library, dispensary, orphanage, school, and other
charitable institutions. So far only seven houses of worship have been built in
the world, and they are national, not local, institutions; two have
dependencies, in both cases a home for the aged.
'Abdu'l-Bahá discusses the institution of the house of worship in
Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá, 94-100. Shoghi
Effendi lists the various dependencies of the house of worship, as well as
those of the Hazíratu'l-Quds, or Bahá'í
administrative building, in God Passes By, 339. See also Lights of
Guidance. 605-11.
Esslemont, 186-88 Momen, 74-5
Ferraby, 269 Smith 1987, 91, 161-2
Hatcher and Martin, 169-71 Smith 1996, 73, 111-4, 120-2, 150
Huddleston, 164-66
A few articles have been written describing the institution of the
Mashriqu'l-Adhkár; a
history of the construction of the American house of worship, Bruce Whitmore's
The Dawning Place, is available; and R. Jackson Armstrong-Ingram
includes a large section on this house of worship in his book Music,
Devotions, and
Mashriqu'l-Adhkár: Studies in
Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume 4. The
architectural dimensions of the house of worship are explored in Tom Kubala's
"Architectural Implications of the Bahá'í Community," in World
Order, 9.1 (Fall 1974). Other relevant citations are in section
¶5. Art, Literature, Music, Architecture.
¶34. Humanity: Its Nature and Purpose
The Bahá'í concept of the nature of humanity must be set in the
context of the nature of creation. Bahá'í scriptures, on the one
hand, see every created thing as capable of reflecting a quality of God;
humanity, on the other hand, has the capacity to reflect all the divine
attributes. Humanity is seen as the highest creation on earth, a creation
invested with special responsibilities toward nature. It also has special
capabilities to know and worship God, and to carry forward an ever-advancing
civilization.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 456-59 (Gleanings,
LXXXII-LXXXIII); 481 (Gleanings, CIX); 532-34 (Gleanings, CLV);
501 (Gleanings, CXXII). 'Abdu'l-Bahá deals with many aspects of
human nature in Some Answered Questions, part four (177-259). A
compilation of Bahá'í writings that contains many illuminating
quotations about the nature of human beings is Bahá'í
Education: A Compilation. Extracts from the Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh, 'Abdu'l-Bahá, and Shoghi Effendi.
Esslemont, 118-9, 153-5 Huddleston, 35-37, 54-60
Ferraby, 142-44, 155-60 Momen, 12-3
Hatcher and Martin, 99-114
One article describing the Bahá'í teachings about the nature of
human beings is Raymond Jeffords' "The Human Soul: A Bahá'í
Perspective," in World Order, 17.1 (Fall 1982). An excellent work that
sets the Bahá'í concept of the nature of humanity in the context
of the Bahá'í concepts of God, Manifestation, and physical
creation, is Julio Savi's The Eternal Quest for God.
¶35. Justice / Divine Justice
Justice is the fundamental virtue in the teachings of
Bahá'u'lláh. By justice, however, the Bahá'í
teachings mean something far greater than simply the treatment of criminals or
even the broader scope of fair interpersonal relations.
Bahá'u'lláh opens the Arabic Hidden Words by telling the
reader that by the aid of justice "thou shalt see with thine own eyes and not
through the eyes of others, and shalt know of thine own knowledge and not
through the knowledge of thy neighbor." (Hidden Words, Arabic No. 2)
Bahá'u'lláh writes about two aspects of justice: the importance
of human effort to establish justice in this world, and the sometimes
inscrutable nature of God's justice. The former is required for a world
community to act in unity, and the latter is a critical aspect of the Greater
Covenant, God's promise never to leave humanity without prophetic guidance and
humanity's agreement to heed the teachings of God's Manifestations.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 51 (Arabic Hidden Words,
2); 424 (Gleanings, XXXVII); 576 (Prayers and Meditations, LV);
580 (Prayers and Meditations, LVII); 584 (Prayers and
Meditations, LX).
Esslemont, 134-5 Momen, 14, 46-7, 50-1, 65
Ferraby, 114-7
John Hatcher's The Purpose of Physical Reality, chapter 1, "The Search
for Divine Justice in the Physical World," is a good work on the operation of
God's justice. The most complete academic work on Bahá'í notions
of justice is a collection of essays on morality, ethics, gender equality, and
social and economic justice edited by Charles O. Lerche, Toward the Most
Great Justice: Elements of Justice in the New World Order.
¶36. Law and Personal Conduct
Bahá'ís are enjoined to be scrupulously obedient to the civil law
of the country in which they abide. As well, the Faith is a religion with many
laws of personal conduct, laws revealed by Bahá'u'lláh and
interpreted by 'Abdu'l-Bahá. Bahá'u'lláh also explains the
purpose of laws of personal conduct and why one should obey them.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 159-60 (Synopsis and
Codification extracts 1 and 2 / Aqdas paragraphs 1 and 7). The rest
of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, published separately, is also relevant,
since it contains not only many of the laws but also "Questions and Answers,"
questions believers put to Bahá'u'lláh concerning the laws of the
Aqdas and his responses; Shoghi Effendi's "A Synopsis and Codification of the
Laws and Ordinances of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas"; and numerous endnotes
commenting on all the above. Lights of Guidance has notes on
Bahá'í community law, 57-64.
Esslemont, 71-87, 102-5, 175-8 Momen, 83-90
Ferraby, 276-86 Smith 1987, 33-5, 80-82, 139-40
Hatcher and Martin, 152-55 Smith 1996, 35-6, 71-3, 156
Martha L. Schweitz examines some issues of Bahá'í law and social
principles in "The Kitáb-i-Aqdas: Bahá'í Law,
Legitimacy, and World Order," in Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 6.1 (Mar.-June 1994). A few studies have examined the nature of
Bahá'í law as it relates to inheritance, for
Bahá'u'lláh included detailed instructions on inheritance law in
cases of intestacy in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas. These include Seena
Fazel's "Inheritance," in Bahá'í Studies Review, 4.1
(1994), and John and Linda Walbridge's "Bahá'í Laws on the Status
of Men," in World Order, 19.1/2 (Fall 1984/Winter 1984-85). Six
authors commented on and responded to the latter in dialogue's forum, "A
Question of Gender: A Forum on the Status of Men in Bahá'í Laws,"
in dialogue 2:1 (Summer/Fall 1987). Udo Schaefer's "'The Balance hath
been Appointed': Some Thoughts on the Publication of the
Kitáb-i-Aqdas," in Bahá'í Studies Review,
3.1 (1993), offers considerations on aspects of Bahá'í law. John
Hatcher considers aspects of punishments for violating Bahá'í
laws in "The Model of Penology in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas," in The
Law of Love Enshrined. Few items of secondary scholarship have been
published on the legal nature of specific Bahá'í codes of
conduct, save Udo Schaefer's In a Blue Haze: On the Ethics of Smoking,
in which uses the ethicality of smoking to examine wider implications of
Bahá'í laws of personal conduct.
¶37. Manifestations of God
The Bahá'í religion emphasizes that God vouchsafes a special
revelation periodically to humanity through Manifestations of God. The
Bahá'í Faith does not deny that ordinary people can experience
God or that God can inspire anyone with truth; however, the
Bahá'í writings see the revelation that is given to the
Manifestations as being qualitatively different, as well as quantitatively
greater. Manifestations are seen as special souls who are pre-existent, unlike
ordinary humans; they are infallible and sinless; they are perfect exemplars of
both God's attributes and God's teachings.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 407-23 (Gleanings,
XXI-XXXV); 462-63 (Gleanings, LXXXVII). 'Abdu'l-Bahá,
Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá, 55-60; Some
Answered Questions, Part One (3-80), examines the influence of the various
Manifestations on human development; part three (143-74) deals with the powers
and conditions of the Manifestations of God. Lights of Guidance,
469-511, is an extended compilation of notes on Bahá'í teachings
on the concept of Manifestation and some of the various Manifestations.
Esslemont, 202-4 Huddleston, 40-3
Faizi, 30-37 Momen, 94-6, 99-103
Ferraby, 37-38, 43-49 Smith 1987, 73-74
Hatcher and Martin, 81-83, 115-23 Smith 1996, 37-8, 64-7
Juan Cole, "The Concept of the Manifestation in the Bahá'í
Writings," Bahá'í Studies, no. 9, and Moojan Momen's
"Bahá'u'lláh's Prophetology," in Bahá'í Studies
Review, 5:1 (1995), examine the archetype of prophethood, Cole's to arrive
at a theological understanding of the nature of revelation and Momen's to seek
patterns in the lives and teachings of the prophets and thus arrive at a
paradigmatic understanding of the nature of prophethood. Julio Savi writes
extensively and incisively about the Bahá'í concept of the
Manifestation in his book The Eternal Quest for God. Also useful is
David M. Earl's "The Mystery of the Manifestation," in World Order, 23.3
(Spring/Summer 1989): 21-30. Juan Cole's "Problems of Chronology in
Bahá'u'lláh's Tablet of Wisdom," in World Order, 13.3
(Spring 1979) considers the question of the accuracy of historical information
in Bahá'u'lláh's revelation. John Hatcher examines the nature of
the Manifestation in "The Doctrine of 'The Most Great Infallibility' in
Relation to the 'Station of Distinction," in The Law of Love Enshrined.
Enoch N. Tanyi presents a possible chronology of all Manifestations listed in
the sacred texts of world religions in "The Syrian Prophet(s)," in Journal
of Bahá'í Studies, 4.3 (Sept.-Dec. 1991). Christopher Buck's
extended essay "Native Messengers of God in Canada? A test case for
Bahá'í universalism," in Bahá'í Studies
Review, 6 (1996), argues that Bahá'í manifestation theology
allows for certain religious figures in other cultures and time periods to be
considered Manifestations.
¶38. Mysticism
Bahá'ís, like other religious people, are concerned about
developing a personal relationship with God and with coming to an ever-deeper
knowledge of self. One way in which people pursue these goals is the mystical
path, a subject on which Bahá'u'lláh has written extensively. He
seems to have highly respected much of the Muslim mystical tradition. This is
evidenced by his preserving much of
Farídu'd-Dín-i-'Attár's Conference of the Birds in
his Seven Valleys and emulating Ibn-i-F'arid in his
Qasídiy-i-Tá'íyyih (on the latter, see God
Passes By, 123). He and 'Abdu'l-Bahá had numerous interactions with
Muslim mystics, or Sufis, some of whom are listed in Memoirs of the
Faithful (5, 36, 38, 91, 142, 148). Shoghi Effendi even said that "the
Bahá'í Faith, like all other Divine religions," is "fundamentally
mystic in character." (Compilation of Compilations, volume II, 238).
However, he also cautioned that true mystical experiences are rare and should
not be sought out (Lights of Guidance), and Bahá'u'lláh
was known to admonish mystics whom he thought were pursuing wasteful goals of
dubious import.
Though Bahá'u'lláh interpreted a great deal of previous religious
symbolism, he said that he was reluctant to expound upon mystical works of
earlier dispensations because such a vast amount of new mystical knowledge has
come with his revelation (Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh,
volume 2, 285). However, very little of Bahá'u'lláh's mystical
writings has been translated thus far. This is partly because these writings
are so uniquely difficult to render into another language, and perhaps also
partly because some of the symbolism and themes in Bahá'u'lláh's
mystical works would seem very foreign and easily misunderstood to anyone not
from a Muslim background.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 3-29 (Seven Valleys and Four
Valleys in toto); 501-05 (Gleanings, CXXIV-CXXV). The Hidden
Words (Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 33-59), though often
considered primarily an "ethical" work, also has many mystical themes.
Ferraby, 114, 129-141 Smith 1987, 35-8, 64, 111-2, 154-5
Momen, 105-7 Smith 1996, 156-7
Ruhi Afnan compared Christian and Islamic mysticism with the
Bahá'í approach to the subject in Mysticism and the
Bahá'í Revelation: A Contrast. The only full study of
mysticism, though a basic one, is Glenn A. Shook's Mysticism, Science, and
Revelation. These are both rather old works. More recently, Farnaz
Ma'súmián wrote a short introduction to Bahá'í
mysticism, "Mysticism and the Bahá'í Faith," in Deepen,
6.3 (1995). Moojan Momen presents some findings of medicine and psychology on
the mystic state and their relation to Bahá'u'lláh's mysticism in
his "The Psychology of Mysticism and its Relationship to the
Bahá'í Faith," in Bahá'í Studies Bulletin,
2.4 (1984). Jack McLean discusses the mystical aspects of spirituality in
Dimensions of Spirituality, especially 82-88. A work of fiction which
may be of interest is Bruce Wells' From Discontent: the Biography of a
Mystic. William Hatcher discussed the Bahá'í concept of the
spiritual life in "The Concept of Spirituality" (Bahá'í
Studies, 11, reprinted in The Bahá'í World: An
International Record, Volume XVIII, and The Law of Love Enshrined)
which, though not directly related to mysticism, may be useful. John Walbridge
devotes a chapter to some of the textual bases of Bahá'í
mysticism in Sacred Acts, Sacred Space, Sacred Time. William S. Hatcher
presents some philosophical aspects of mysticism in "Myths, Models, and
Mysticism," in Logic and Logos: Essays on Science, Religion, and
Philosophy.
¶39. New World Order
The Bahá'í scriptures speak frequently about the need for a New
World Order, that is, a reform of human society, culture, and civilization
based on the revelation of Bahá'u'lláh. The first stage of the
New World Order is the Lesser Peace, the unity of nations; the far
future human state is the Bahá'í equivalent of the millennium or
the Kingdom of God on earth and is called The Most Great Peace.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 233 (second Ishráq,
in Tablets 126); 478-79 (Gleanings, CIV); 480-81
(Gleanings, CVI-CVIII); 482-83 (Gleanings, CXI-CXII); there are
also many statements about the new world order in Bahá'u'lláh's
tablets to the kings (see The Proclamation of Bahá'u'lláh;
much of it is found in Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 479-99).
Many of Bahá'u'lláh's laws and principles for the new world order
are found in the tablets of Bishárát,
Tarázát, and Ishráqát (Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh, 181-92 and 220-38, also in Tablets 21-29,
33-44, and 101-134). Shoghi Effendi, Call to the Nations, 45-66; "The
Goal of a New World Order," in World Order of Bahá'u'lláh,
29-48. 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Selections from the Writings of
'Abdu'l-Bahá, 32 (the Seven Candles of Unity).
Esslemont, 137, 273-82 Momen, 59-62
Ferraby, 80-93, 297-305 Smith 1987, 196-99
Hatcher and Martin, 136-42 Smith 1996, 107
Huddleston, 110-12, 153-72
Relatively few articles have been written on the Bahá'í concept
of the new world order and how it will be established; one is Douglas Martin's
"The Spiritual Revolution," in World Order, 8.2 (Winter 1973-74).
Closely related is Alessandro Bausani's "The Religious Crisis of the Modern
World," in World Order, 2.3 (Spring 1968). A lengthy elaboration of the
current world situation and the resources offered by the Bahá'í
teachings for revolutionizing world society may be found in Udo Schaefer's
The Imperishable Dominion: The Bahá'í Faith and the Future of
Mankind. A new compilation of essays edited by Charles Lerche has been
published under the title Emergence: Dimensions of a New World Order.
These essays focus on the Bahá'í world order model; the
international political changes that have been moving the world toward a new
world order; human nature and the problem of establishing world peace; social
and economic development; and environmental problems. Particularly relevant is
Loni Bramson-Lerche's essay "An Analysis of the Bahá'í World
Order Model" (1-70). A useful and somewhat critical book review of
Emergence was published by Sen McGlinn in The Bahá'í
Studies Review, 3.1 (1993): 87-92. Toward the Most Great Justice:
Elements of Justice in the New World Order, and Emergence: Dimensions of
a New World Order, both edited by Charles O. Lerche, contains many
pieces tangential to the topic.
¶40. Peace and War
Bahá'ís believe that the cessation of war and the establishment
of world peace are inevitable steps in human social evolution. The
Bahá'í writings describe the next step in social development as
the establishment of the lesser peace, in which the nations of the world
will establish international mechanisms to prevent future wars.
'Abdu'l-Bahá predicts that the foundation for the lesser peace will be
laid before the end of the twentieth century. However, the Bahá'í
notions of peace transcend a simple abolition of war. The end of war will
constitute the lesser peace, but Bahá'ís believe that a higher,
most great peace, will one day be realized. This stage represents the
true maturity of humankind, when the world will fully live by spiritual
principles and become the "kingdom of God on Earth."
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 496-99 (Gleanings,
CXVII-CXX). 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Selections from the Writings of
'Abdu'l-Bahá, 295-312, and Esslemont, 170 (a statement written by
'Abdu'l-Bahá specifically for Esslemont's book). 'Abdu'l-Bahá
writes on the importance of founding political peace in Secret of Divine
Civilization 64-6, which is partially excerpted in Shoghi Effendi's
World Order of Bahá'u'lláh 37-8. The statement by the
Universal House of Justice, The Promise of World Peace, is the best
summary yet written on the meaning and broad significance of peace. Lights
of Guidance also contains a section of quotations on peace, 430-437.
A lengthy compilation on peace is included in Compilation of
Compilations, volume II. Another systematic compilation of the writings of
Bahá'u'lláh, the Báb, 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi,
and the Universal House of Justice about war and peace and related subjects was
published in 1986 under the title Peace: More than an End to War.
Esslemont, 156-74 Momen, 46, 50
Ferraby, 92-93 Smith 1987, 74-7, 108, 140-3, 148
Hatcher and Martin, 140-41 Smith 1996, 71, 82-3, 86, 126, 156
Huddleston, 1-27, 149-52, 230-33
PEACE
Philip Hainsworth's Bahá'í Focus on Peace is a useful
discussion of the issues of war and peace from a Bahá'í
perspective. Hossain B. Danesh's Unity: The Creative Foundation of Peace
highlights the dynamic nature of the Bahá'í concept of unity and
its application to problems preventing world peace. Ronald Roesch briefly
examines the relevance of individual psychology to the establishment of world
peace in "Psychology and Peace," in Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 1.2 (1988-1989). John Huddleston's Achieving Peace By the Year
2000: A Twelve Part Proposal offers a series of concrete steps, based on a
Bahá'í perspective, for establishing world peace. Huddleston's
Search for a Just Society, chapters 20-25, discusses the political
history of peace and war in the last two centuries, and concludes by proposing
Bahá'í solutions in chapter 29, "A Vision of World Peace."
Anthony Lee edited a volume of useful essays on peace issues by different
Bahá'ís titled Circle of Peace: Reflections on the
Bahá'í Teachings. This volume includes essays on peace
groups, human rights, women, youth, and the Soviet Union, as well as a
harrowing account of one Bahá'í's experiences fighting in the
Vietnam war. Huschmand Sabet's The Way Out of the Dead End: A Plea for
Peace examines the current world situation and the resources offered by
Christianity and the Bahá'í Faith for solving world problems.
Cooperative Peace Strategies, a collection of papers related to the
subject of world peace, has been edited by John Davidson and Marjorie Tidman
for the Association for Bahá'í Studies of Australia. It includes
articles on peace and the media, parenting, agriculture, the environment, the
arms race, and gender equality. Kathy Lee examines the forces, both destructive
and creative, which are leading to the lesser peace in Prelude to the Lesser
Peace. Nader Saiedi proposes Bahá'í solutions to the
prolonged conflicts in the Middle East in "The Middle East and World Peace," in
World Order, 26.1 (Fall 1994). The compilation of essays in
Emergence: Dimensions of a New World Order, edited by Charles Lerche, is
also useful. These essays include discussions of the Bahá'í world
order model, the international political changes that have been moving the
world toward a new world order, human nature and the problem of establishing
world peace, social and economic development, and environmental problems.
John N. Danesh's "Four Peace Messages, 1983-85: A Comparison," in World
Order, 24.1 (Fall 1989/Winter 1989-90): 7-19, compares the Universal House
of Justice's peace statement with similar statements issued by the World
Council of Churches, the World Methodist Council, and the Vatican. Charles
Lerche's "Human Nature and the Problem of Peace," in Charles Lerche, ed.,
Emergence, 101-30, considers negative attitudes about humanity's nature
that have existed since Augustine and the Bahá'í response to
them.
WAR
Bahá'u'lláh has explicitly outlawed the concept of holy war,
jihád. Indeed, this was his first legislative act following his
declaration (Smith 1987, 78).
The sacred writings discuss the unacceptably destructive nature of war in
numerous places, including 'Abdu'l-Bahá in Secret of Divine
Civilization, 61-67 and Shoghi Effendi in The Promised Day is Come.
However, the Bahá'í Faith is not pacifist.
Bahá'u'lláh wrote to Queen Victoria that, should any nation
attack another, the other nations of the world should suppress the aggressor.
Shoghi Effendi quoted this statement in many places, including World Order
of Bahá'u'lláh, 192, and God Passes By, 206-207.
Shahrokh Monjazeb provided a complete translation of this tablet in
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 4-21. In Secret of Divine
Civilization, 70, 'Abdu'l-Bahá even says that "a conquest can be a
praiseworthy thing." See also Lights of Guidance, 437.
Esslemont, 171-173 Smith 1987, 21-2, 27, 43-5, 78-9, 147
Hatcher and Martin, 13, 14, 20, 47 Smith 1996, 40, 42-6, 58, 66, 90, 157
Denis MacEoin has studied the theme of war in the writings of the Báb in
"The Babi Concept of Holy War," in Religion, 12 (1982), "From Babism to
Baha'ism: problems of militancy, quietism and conflation in the construction of
a religion," in Religion, 13 (1983), and "Bahá'í
Fundamentalism and the Academic Study of the Bábí Movement," in
Religion, 16 (Jan. 1986), especially 68-71 and 75-8. Ruhullah
Mehrabkhani has challenged MacEoin's allegations of Bábí
militancy in "Some Notes on Fundamental Principles: Western Scholarship and the
Religion of the Báb" in Bahá'í Studies Bulletin,
2:4 (1984), especially pages 29-35, where he presents material that
supports a much more eirenic picture of the Báb. Muhammad Afnán
and William S. Hatcher have also rejected MacEoin's reading of
Bábí history in their "Western Islamic Scholarship and
Bahá'í Origins," in Religion, 15 (1985), 31-50 passim.
¶41. Persecution and Martyrdom
The history of the persecution of the Bahá'í Faith is as long as
the history of the religion itself. Persecution has especially occurred in
Islamic cultures and societies, but there has also been severe persecution of
the Bahá'í Faith (and other religions) in Marxist and Fascist
societies, and some persecution has even occurred in Christian societies.
Esslemont, 15-7, 24-9, 169-71, 198-9, Momen, 118-9, 127 Smith 1987, 79, 89,
252 Ferraby, 288-90 98, 172-4, 177-80
Hatcher and Martin, 195-8 Smith 1996, 63, 90, 134-7, 145-7, 150
Huddleston, 225-30
PERSECUTIONS IN IRAN--historical and overviews
A starting point for studying the history of persecutions in Iran is Moojan
Momen's detailed work, "A Chronology of Some of the Persecutions of the
Bábís and Bahá'ís in Iran, 1844-1978," in The
Bahá'í World vol. 18, pages 380-392. The studies of the
current persecution in Iran are the most detailed. Douglas Martin's "The
Persecution of the Bahá'ís in Iran, 1844-1984"
(Bahá'í Studies, 12/13) provides an excellent historical
overview, and Juan Cole's "The Bahá'ís of Iran," in History
Today, 40 (1990) also discusses the topic. Roger Cooper's The
Bahá'ís of Iran, published by Minority Rights Group, Ltd., a
British Human Rights organization, is balanced and objective, though it is now
a bit out of date (having been updated only through 1985). Muhammad Labib's
Seven Martyrs of Hurmuzak describes a martyrdom that occurred in 1955;
its relevance to the modern situation has been described in a review of the
book by Howard Garey, published in World Order, 20.1 (Fall 1985). One of
the worst outbreaks of persecution in Iran, that of Yazd and surrounding areas
in 1903, has been reported on by both Bahá'í and
non-Bahá'í writers. Michael Fischer, in his doctoral dissertation
Zoroastrian Iran Between Myth and Praxis, has extensively discussed the
massacre of Bahá'ís at Yazd. Parts of this have been published in
Fischer and Mehdi Abedi, Debating Muslims: Cultural Dialogues in
Postmodernity and Tradition and reprinted in Bahá'í Faith
and Islam, "Social Change and the Mirrors of Tradition: The
Bahá'ís of Yazd." The book Debating Muslims also includes
an autobiographical story of a member of the Anti-Bahá'í Society
who relates how he and his friends would taunt and harass Bahá'ís
as youths and who later studied and practiced to best Bahá'ís in
formal debate. Gary K. Waite seeks to understand some of the broader dynamics
underlying the persections of the Bábís by comparing them with
another persecuted religous group, the 16-century German Anabaptists, in "The
Religious State: A Comparative Study of Sixteenth- and Nineteenth-century
Opposition," in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 7:1 (March-June
1995).
PERSECUTIONS IN IRAN--official and government statements
The persecution of Iran's Bahá'ís has generated many
congressional and other governmental hearings. Some of these include the
testimony given at the congressional hearings reprinted in World Order
magazine, 16.3 (Spring 1982); 18.2 (Winter 1983-84); 18.3 (Spring 1984); 22.3
(Spring/Summer 1988); and 24.2/3 (Spring/Summer 1990). Testimonies have also
been published in the U.S. government's Committee on Foreign Affairs'
Religious Persecution as a Violation of Human Rights, pages 149-250.
Official statements of the Bahá'í community include two recent
and comprehensive works--which provide a history and an overview of the
situation through 1993--The Bahá'í Question: Iran's Secret
Blueprint for the Destruction of a Religious Community and Douglas Martin's
"The Case of the Bahá'í Minority in Iran," in The
Bahá'í World: An International Record, 1992-93. These replace
an earlier Bahá'í International Community white paper titled
The Bahá'ís in Iran: A Report on the Persecution of a
Religious Minority, which details the persecution through 1982 and provides
many statistics and copies of original Iranian government documents.
PERSECUTIONS IN IRAN--memoirs and general
Olya Roohizadegan's Olya's Story: A Survivor's Dramatic Account of the
Persecution of Bahá'ís in Revolutionary Iran is a personal
memoir of an Iranian Bahá'í who was imprisoned, interrogated, and
survived to tell the story. Christine Hakim-Samandari's "Victory Over
Violence," in World Order, 20.1 (Fall 1985), consists of selections from
her longer and more general Les Bahá'ís: ou victoire sur la
violence. Poignant letters from martyrs containing their reflections about
life and sacrifice are published in English translations in Amin Banani's
"Three Accounts of Love Sacrificed," in World Order, 17.1 (Fall 1982).
Fereshteh Taheri Bethel included many similar letters as an appendix to her
dissertation A Psychological Theory of Martyrdom: A content analysis of
personal documents of Bahá'í martyrs of Iran written between 1979
and 1982. The moral implications of the Iranian persecutions are considered
in Will van den Hoonaard's "The Persecution of the Iranian Bahá'í
Community and the Emergence of a Universal Moral Order," in World Order,
19.1/2 (Fall 1984/Winter 1984-85). Geoffrey Nash's Iran's Secret Pogrom
is useful and well-written, and William Sears' Cry from the Heart
describes the persecution in a popular and passionate way. The so-called
"Golpaygani Memorandum," a secret Iranian government memorandum to destroy the
Iranian Bahá'í community and weaken the Faith worldwide, has been
published in the original Persian, with English translation and commentary
under the title "Iran's Blueprint to Destroy the Bahá'í
Community," in World Order, 25.1 (Fall, 1993), 44-50.
PERSECUTIONS OUTSIDE OF IRAN
Scholarship on persecution of Bahá'ís outside of Iran includes a
study of the persecution of Bahá'ís in Morocco in the late 1950s
and early 1960s, Freedom of Religion on Trial in Morocco: The Nador Case
(1963). The occasional persecution of the Bahá'ís in the Russian
Empire dates back to the 1880s and is described in Anthony Lee's "The Rise of
the Bahá'í Community of 'Ishqábád."
Systematic persecution of the Bahá'ís in the Soviet Union under
Stalin is described in "Persecutions under the Soviet Régime," The
Bahá'í World: A Biennial International Record, vol. 3,
1928-1930, 34-43; "Turkestan," The Bahá'í World: A
Biennial International Record, vol. 5, 1832-1934, 33-43;
"Difficulties in Turkistán and Caucasus," in The Bahá'í
World: A Biennial International Record, vol. 7, 1936-1938, 100-102;
"Persecution and Deportation of the Bahá'ís of Caucasus and
Turkistan," in The Bahá'í World: A Biennial International
Record, vol. 8, 1938-1940, 87-90. Persecution of German
Bahá'ís by the Nazis is described in The Bahá'í
World: A Biennial International Record, vol. 10, 1944-1946, 20-25.
There are also scattered references in Lidia: The Life of Lidia Zamenhof,
Daughter of Esperanto (Lidia Zamenhof was a Bahá'í and lived
in Warsaw during much of World War Two, until she was sent to the Treblinka
concentration camp). While the opposition to the Bahá'í Faith in
the United States can hardly be called "persecution," it has been studied; the
best article is Douglas Martin's "The Missionary as Historian: William Miller
and the Bahá'í Faith," in World Order, 10.3 (Spring
1976).
MARTYRDOM AND THE MEANING OF SUFFERING
The spiritual significance of martyrdom is another facet of persecution, one
which gives an insight into why Bábís and Bahá'ís
have tended to accept and in cases even seek persecution. Suffering and dying
in the path of one's religion has long been given theological significance;
"sacrifice" in Latin means "to make sacred," and the words for martyr and for
witness, i.e. one who testifies to God's existence, are identical in Greek and
closely related in Arabic. The Christian atonement--i.e. Jesus' death on the
cross as a channel for reconciliation between the sinful humanity and the
forgiving God--is perhaps the most systematized of religious notions of
martyrdom, but the broad theme is found in all religions. In
Shí'í Islam it takes the form of the sacrifice of
Muhammad's grandson and the third Imám, Husayn, in the fields of
Karbilá, which has led to a pervading ethos of redemptive suffering in
Shí'ism. Much of the writings of the Báb and
Bahá'u'lláh reflect this ethos (e.g. Hidden Words, Arabic
45-51, and Epistle to the Son of the Wolf, 72-7), but the actual
practice of martyrdom in the Bábí versus the Bahá'í
Faiths is quite different. Whereas the Bábís were at times almost
eager to be martyred, Bahá'u'lláh often declared that his
followers were not to take statements praising martyrdom so literally that they
would seek it; instead, Bahá'ís came to think of service as being
a form of martyrdom--devoting one's life completely to the religion and to
serving humanity is a form of living sacrifice (e.g. Advent of Divine
Justice 7, and Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh, volume 4,
302-3, and Smith 1996, 157).
'Abdu'l-Bahá explains types of sacrifices and their significances in
Promulgation of Universal Peace, 449-52.
Esslemont 15-8, 22, 24-5, 169-71, 198-9, Momen, 108-10 Smith 1987, 3, 27,
252 Hatcher and Martin, 16-21, 195-7 44-5, 79, 180
Huddleston, 188-9 Smith 1996, 16, 43-4, 66, 157
The incidents of Bábí and Bahá'í martyrdom have
been well recorded and frequently cited, as for example in the textbook
citations given immediately above. Numerous first-hand accounts of martyrdoms,
usually extolling the heroism of the martyrs, have been written, many of which
were published in volumes of World Order magazine, Star of the
West, and The Bahá'í World. A collection of documents
of the martyrdom of the Báb, both Bahá'í scriptural
accounts and a few eyewitness accounts, has been published as Martyrdom of
the Báb: A Compilation.
However, little academic work has examined this issue. The citations given
above for Smith 1987 mention some of the Shí'í influence
on the patterns of martyrdom. Fereshteh Taheri Bethel conducted a somewhat
useful study of the psychology of martyrdom, i.e. the internal states of
martyrs, in her dissertation A Psychological Theory of Martyrdom: A content
analysis of personal documents of Bahá'í martyrs of Iran written
between 1979 and 1982, aspects of which she published as "A Psychological
Theory of Martyrdom," in World Order, 20.2/3 (Spring/Summer 1986).
Abdu'l-Missagh Ghadirian has examined a similar topic in "Psychological and
Spiritual Dimensions of Persecution and Suffering," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 6.3 (Sept.-Dec. 1994). Jonah Winters'
master's thesis Dying For God: Conceptions of Martyrdom in the Shi'i, Babi,
and Bahai Religions traces continuities and discontinuities of the
theologies of martyrdom.
NUMBERS OF BABI MARTYRS
One topic, though a minor one, that has occasioned a fair amount of academic
debate is the number of believers who were martyred since the beginning of the
Bábí movement. Denis MacEoin has consistently maintained that the
number of martyrs was not 20,000, as 'Abdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi
mentioned numerous times, but between 2,000 to 3,000 (e.g. "A Note on the
Numbers of Babi and Bahá'í Martyrs in Iran," in
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 2.2 (Sept. 1983), and "From
Babism to Baha'ism: Problems of Militancy, Conflation, and Quietism in the
Construction of a Religion," in Religion, 13 (July 83), 235-8). However,
the Universal House of Justice, in a letter to an individual dated 22 January
1984, reiterated that the figure of 20,000 is "clearly recorded" in "the
official government historical record of events in Iran."
(Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 3.4 (Dec. 1995), page 99).
¶42. Philosophy
The Bahá'í writings regard the study of philosophy as being very
important; 'Abdu'l-Bahá says that all people must be educated in science
and philosophy (Promulgation of Universal Peace, 108). While
Bahá'u'lláh does condemn philosophers whose studies begin and end
with words (e.g. Tablets, 169), Shoghi Effendi clarifies that by this
Bahá'u'lláh was not dismissing the study of philosophy, which
Shoghi Effendi terms "a sound branch of learning," but rather the endless
"metaphysical hair-splittings" which many among the Islamic clergy engaged in
(Scholarship: A Compilation, #54).
Two texts that stand out as chief among the Bahá'í philosophical
works are Bahá'u'lláh's "Tablet of Wisdom," in Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh, 239-47 (Tablets, 135-52), and
'Abdu'l-Bahá's "Tablet to Auguste Forel." 'Abdu'l-Bahá briefly
defines philosophy in Memoirs of the Faithful, 92, and distinguishes
between natural and divine philosophy in Promulgation of Universal
Peace, 326-7 (quoted in H. M. Balyuzi's 'Abdu'l-Bahá: The Centre
of the Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh, where the page numbers from
an earlier edition of Promulgation are given). The Research Department
of the Universal House of Justice has compiled a thorough list of references to
philosophy from the Bahá'í writings and divided them by topic and
has as well provided extracts on philosophy from previously unpublished works,
in "References on Philosophy," in Bahá'í Studies Bulletin,
5.1-2 (Jan. 1991): 76-87.
GENERAL PHILOSOPHICAL WORKS
William S. Hatcher's Logic and Logos: Essays on Science, Religion, and
Philosophy includes many discussions of philosophy, including for example
Platonic thought, metaphysics, logic, and subjectivity. His five essays
reprinted in The Law of Love Enshrined deal with scientific approaches
to religion, philosophy, and spirituality. John S. Hatcher's The Purpose of
Physical Reality: The Kingdom of Names ruminates on classical philosophy,
the physical world, justice, and the afterlife, and his The Arc of Ascent:
The Purpose of Physical Reality II contains a wealth of philosophical
reflections on gender complementarity, salvation, historiography, Manifestation
theology, peace, and the new world order. B. Hoff Conow has contributed a long
and broad examination of Bahá'í theological philosophy with her
The Bahá'í Teachings: A Resurgent Model of the Universe.
SPECIFIC STUDIES
Though a few works have addressed certain issues of philosophy and the
Bahá'í Faith, none yet have been written in the strongly
scholastic vein often associated with Western philosophy. William Hatcher
examines a variety of philosophical considerations useful to an understanding
of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas in "The Kitáb-i-Aqdas: The
Causality Principle in the World of Being," in The Bahá'í
World: An International Record, 1993-94, reprinted in The Law of Love
Enshrined. Bret Breneman examines the moral intent of classical rhetoric
and its relation to Bahá'í teachings on speech in
"Socrates'/Plato's Use of Rhetoric: A Bahá'í Perspective," in
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 4.1 (Mar.-June 1991). Ross
Woodman contrasts aspects of the eschatological thought of Hegel and Nietzsche
with that of Bahá'u'lláh in "The End of the World: Whatever
Happened? Or Leftover Time to Kill," in Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 3.3 (1990-1991). Robert Parry examines the nature of a possible
Bahá'í theology through a comparison with Christian theology in
"Philosophical Theology in Bahá'í Scholarship," in
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 6.4-7.2 (Oct. [Dec.] 1992). Ruhi
Afnan has written a series of philosophical works, two of which--The
Revelation of Baha'u'llah and the Báb: Book I: Descartes' Theory of
Knowledge and Baha'u'llah and the Bab Confront Modern Thinkers: Book II:
Spinoza: Concerning God--show a relatively high degree of philosophical
sophistication.*
¶43. Pilgrimage
Bahá'ís who have the financial means are expected to go on
pilgrimage to the Bahá'í World Centre in Israel at least once in
their life. Pilgrimage to the House of the Báb in
Shíráz, Iran, and to the House of
Bahá'u'lláh in Baghdad, Iraq, is also enjoined, but is
currently impossible because of political conditions. For a description of the
Bahá'í World Centre and its history, see ¶32, Holy Places,
Bahá'í.
Hatcher and Martin, 180-81 Momen, 73
John Walbridge presents many elements of Bahá'í pilgrimage,
including discussions of Tablets of Visitation, shrines, cemeteries, the "Most
Great House" of Bahá'u'lláh, and Mount Carmel, in Sacred Acts,
Sacred Space, Sacred Time, 103-149. For non-scholarly accounts of
pilgrimage, one can consult the many pilgrim's notes and personal recollections
of Westerners who visited the Holy Land, such as Thornton Chase's In
Galilee, Myron Phelps' The Master in 'Akká, Marzieh Gail's
Arches of the Years, Julie M. Grundy's Ten Days in the Light of
'Akká, the compilation of pilgrim's notes In His Presence: Visits
to 'Abdu'l-Bahá, the biography of Lua Getsinger, Lua Getsinger:
Herald of the Covenant, Helen S. Goodall's Daily Lessons Received at
'Akká, and the memoirs of Persian believers such as
Tarázu'lláh Samandarí's Moments with
Bahá'u'lláh and Hájí Mírzá
Haydar-'Alí's Stories from the Delight of Hearts.
* Ruhi Afnan, cousin of Shoghi Effendi and one
of his secretaries, was excommunicated in 1941 for disobedience to the
Guardian. However, as William Collins writes, "Afnan's works are largely
philosophical in nature and are generally not in conflict with
Bahá'í concepts." (A Bibliography of English-Language
Works, 295).
¶44. Pioneering
Pioneering is the act of moving to another locality, be it a nearby town
(homefront pioneering) or a foreign country, to teach the
Bahá'í Faith. It is distinct from "teaching" in that the latter
does not necessarily involve relocation.
Pioneering is a topic frequently mentioned in the primary texts. Indeed, a
significant portion of the writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi
are devoted to encouraging Bahá'ís to pioneer or offering
guidance to those who have. 'Abdu'l-Bahá's Tablets of the Divine
Plan is entirely devoted to exhortations to teach and pioneer. One succinct
compilation can be found in Lights of Guidance, 570-581.
Ferraby, 294-5 Momen, 130
Hatcher and Martin, 176-7 Smith 1987, 156-7
Huddleston, 154 Smith 1996, 110-1, 122, 148
Little scholarship has been produced on pioneering, but discussions of
pioneering constitute a large portion of Bahá'í literature.
Biographies of many famous Bahá'í figures include discussions on
the topic. As well, discussions of teaching and the Plans, the systematic
teaching endeavors first started by Shoghi Effendi, often include discussions
of pioneering. One such is Roger M. Dahl's discussion of homefront pioneering
in "Three Teaching Methods Used During North America's First Seven-Year Plan,"
in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 5.3 (Sept.-Dec. 1993). Two
works that can be mentioned here are Rúhíyyih Rabbáni's
A Manual for Pioneers, a book of practical advice for pioneers, and
And the Trees Clapped their Hands, a collection of stories and anecdotes
about pioneers compiled by Claire Vreeland.
¶45. Politics
Shoghi Effendi clearly instructed that Bahá'ís must not become
involved in partisan politics. The primary reason for this is that the goal of
the Bahá'í Faith is a new world order radically different from
the world order as it now exists; the Bahá'í world order will
have a radically different political, social, and economic organization, based
primarily on the Bahá'í principle of unity. Modern political
systems are based on the idea that political competition--political
disunity--will control excessive concentration of power in any one group; in
short, disunity is used to control greed. Such a system emphasizes loyalty to
one's party, regardless of whether its position on a particular issue is right.
For Bahá'ís to join such a political party would be tantamount to
renouncing their high ideals about unity; hence Bahá'ís do not
join political parties, as they are currently constituted.
Bahá'ís can vote, however; they can accept government
appointments, such as judgeships; and they can present their principles to
parties, politicians, and governmental agencies. When the Bahá'ís
approach the United States Congress about particular legislation, such as
resolutions condemning the persecution of the Bahá'ís in Iran,
the resolutions always have bipartisan support.
Some of the Bahá'í writings that address this topic are
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 182 (Fifth Glad Tidings in
Tablets 22-23); 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Selections from the Writings of
'Abdu'l-Bahá, 293-94; Shoghi Effendi, World Order of
Bahá'u'lláh, 64-66, 198, and the Universal House of Justice,
"Noninterference in Political Affairs," in Messages of the Universal House
of Justice, 1968-1973, 44-50. See also Lights of Guidance, 441-54.
Esslemont, 137-9 Huddleston, 144-49
Ferraby, 88-92, 286-87 Momen, 45-8, 134
Hatcher and Martin, 160-1, 164 Smith 1987, 146-7
R. Jackson Armstrong-Ingram describes some of the historical reasons that
Baháí's have shunned political involvement and explores some
implications of this in "Politics, Text, and Context," in dialogue, 1:3
(Summer/Fall 1986). The Bahá'í International Community released a
statement on the fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations, Turning Point
for All Nations, which addresses old versus new politics and issues of the
approaching time of the lesser peace. This has been reprinted in World
Order, 27.2 (Winter 1995-96). The Bahá'í Faith holds views on
many issues that are closely related to politics, such as individual rights and
freedoms. However, as Arash Abizadeh has demonstrated in his brief "Liberal
Democracy and the Bahá'í Administrative Order," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 2.3 (1990), Western and Bahá'í
systems of governance have many differences. The best summary of the
Bahá'í position is the statement by the Universal House of
Justice titled Individual Rights and Freedoms in the World Order of
Bahá'u'lláh. A comparison of principles of authority and
freedom in the Bahá'í writings and those of John Locke and others
may be found in Paul Glist's "Principles of Freedom and Philosophy in American
and Bahá'í Philosophy," in World Order, 16.2 (Winter
1982). A well-organized attempt to examine the Bahá'í
administrative order as a political order is made in A. L. Lincoln's "The
Politics of Faith: A New Political Culture," in World Order, 5.2 (Winter
1970-71). Brian Aull's "The Process of Social Change," in World Order,
23.3 (Spring/Summer 1989), 9-18, is the best article yet written on the subject
of why Bahá'ís avoid partisan politics and advocate a unific
approach to social change. John Huddleston offers a lengthy and erudite account
of modern political quests for justice and social improvement in The Search
for a Just Society and concludes with Bahá'í solutions in
chapters 28-30. Juan Cole explores aspects of the Bahá'í system
of governance and its influences in "Iranian Millenarianism and Democratic
Thought in the 19th Century," in The International Journal of Middle East
Studies, 24.1 (1992).
Two collections of articles, Toward the Most Great Justice: Elements of
Justice in the New World Order, and Emergence: Dimensions of a New World
Order, both edited by Charles O. Lerche, contain some pieces on
politics.
MARXISM
A few publications have addressed the relation between Marxism and the
Bahá'í Faith. The Association for Bahá'í Studies
volume The Bahá'í Faith and Marxism: Proceedings of a
Conference, January 1986 contains Laurie E. Adkin's "Marxism, Human Nature,
and Society," Colin Leys' "Marxism Today and Yesterday," and other related
essays. As well, some articles in Circle of Unity: Bahá'í
Approaches to Current Social Issues address the topic. Sen McGlinn's
"Towards the Enlightened Society," in Bahá'í Studies
Review, 4.1 (1994), includes discussions of Marxist interpretations of
Western history.
¶46. Prayer and Meditation
Muslims frequently describe prayer and fasting as twin pillars of religion, a
description that Bahá'u'lláh apparently endorses (see Writings
of Bahá'u'lláh, 76 and
Kitáb-i-Íqán 39-40). Bahá'u'lláh
revealed three obligatory prayers, and Bahá'ís are under a
spiritual obligation to recite one of them each day, along with the performance
of any actions the prayer entails (such as washing of the face and hands).
Ablutions and a form of dhikr (in this case, repeating the
"Greatest Name" Alláh-u-Abhá ninety-five times) are prescribed in
the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, but are not yet binding upon nor often
practiced by Western Bahá'ís. Bahá'u'lláh, the
Báb, and 'Abdu'l-Bahá all revealed, and Shoghi Effendi, wrote,
scores of prayers for individuals to say in their daily devotions, many of
which are for specialized subjects: illness, death, one's spouse, one's
children, tests and difficulties, etc. Such prayers fall in a different
category than the obligatory prayers, however, and are not a required part of a
Bahá'í's daily spiritual life. The Bahá'í
scriptures offer many descriptions about why one should pray.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 453 (Gleanings, LXXIX),
and 681-86 (the obligatory prayers, also in Bahá'í Prayers
4-16), and Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá, 69-70,
discuss prayer. One of 'Abdu'l-Bahá's clearest presentations of
meditation is in Paris Talks, 173-6. The Importance of Prayer,
Meditation, and the Devotional Attitude, in Compilation of
Compilations, volume I, a reprint of Spiritual Foundations: Prayer,
Meditation, and the Devotional Attitude, is a relevant compilation of
Bahá'í scriptural passages. Lights of Guidance contains
two sections that address meditation and prayer: 455-68 and 540-543.
Esslemont, 88-100 Hatcher and Martin, 156-57
Faizi, 55-7 Huddleston, 52-3
Ferraby, 132-41, 283-84 Momen, 23, 84-7
The central figures wrote frequently on the importance of meditation.
Westerners often associate meditation with Eastern religions and occasionally
assume that devotional and even ascetic practices are integral aspects of
meditation. Bahá'ís, though, tend to think of meditation as quiet
reflection, especially on passages of scripture. There is no set form of
meditation given in the Bahá'í writings and Bahá'ís
approach it many ways. However, Shoghi Effendi, through his secretary, warned
that Bahá'ís "should guard against superstitious or foolish ideas
creeping into" their meditative practices. (The Importance of Prayer,
Meditation, and the Devotional Attitude, in Compilation of
Compilations, volume I, 241.)
Wendi Momen discusses a variety of meditation techniques, such as those of
Sufism, Yoga, and Zen, and selects a variety of Bahá'í writings
related to meditation, in her short guide Meditation. William and
Madeline Hellaby devoted their book Prayer: A Bahá'í
Approach to discussing the meaning and function of prayer. R. Jackson
Armstrong-Ingram's Music, Devotions, and
Mashriqu'l-Adhkár: Studies in
Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume 4 has passing
references to American Bahá'í devotional practices. Julio Savi
has a few mentions of prayer and meditation in The Eternal Quest for
God, 120-4 and 158-9. Jack McLean's Dimensions in Spirituality is
one of the most academic approaches to the subjects; he discusses prayer
throughout the book, and meditation especially on pages 119-27. John
Walbridge's Sacred Acts, Sacred Space, Sacred Time, especially 30-55, is
another scholarly presentation of prayer in the Bahá'í community
and some of its Muslim and Bábí antecedents.
¶47. Principles, Bahá'í
Bahá'ís often enumerate the basic tenets of their religion
in the form of lists of principles. Some sample principles are oneness of
humankind, independent investigation of truth, equality of sexes, just
distribution of wealth, an international auxiliary language, etc. While all of
these tenets can be traced back to the writings of Bahá'u'lláh,
it was 'Abdu'l-Bahá who would occasionally distill them into lists.
These lists vary slightly, and new principles are occasionally being suggested;
for example, individual Bahá'ís have sometimes spoken of
"responsible use of technology" as being a new principle.
Many of Bahá'u'lláh's laws and principles are found in the
tablets of Bishárát, Tarázát, and
Ishráqát (Writings of Bahá'u'lláh,
181-92 and 220-38, also in Tablets 21-29, 33-44, and 101-134) and in
the Kitáb-i-Aqdas. One place in which 'Abdu'l-Bahá
enumerates them most clearly, in this case listing eleven, is Paris
Talks, 135-68; another is Promulgation of Universal Peace, 105-10.
Esslemont, 71-87 Smith 1987, 108
Hatcher and Martin, 74-84 Smith 1996, 85-87
Momen, 53
Christopher Buck examines the content of and differences in enumerating the
Bahá'í principles in his dissertation Paradise and Paradigm:
Key Symbols in "Persian" Christianity and the Bahá'í Faith,
especially chapters 4 and 5. Denis MacEoin, in an article on
'Abdu'l-Bahá in the Encylopaedia Iranica, claims that some of
'Abdu'l-Bahá's Bahá'í principles were derived, not from
Bahá'u'lláh, but from contemporary Western liberalist movement. A
Bahá'í response to this is only available in Persian
('Andalíb, 2:5 (1983), 27-41), but has been summarized in
Muhammad Afnán and William S. Hatcher, "Western Islamic Scholarship and
Bahá'í Origins," in Religion, 15 (1985), 30.
¶48. Prophecy
The Bahá'í Faith teaches that the coming of the Báb,
Bahá'u'lláh, and the events of the modern day have been
prophesied in the scriptures of Judaism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and
Islam. Bahá'ís have also written books suggesting that the
Bahá'í Faith was prophesied in the writings of Hinduism,
Buddhism, Native American religious traditions, and Mormonism. Their conviction
that the Bahá'í Faith represents the fulfillment of these
traditions is based on their concept of progressive revelation.
Bahá'ís also believe the Bahá'í writings contain
prophecies that have been fulfilled or will be fulfilled in the future, for
Bahá'u'lláh makes various references to future world events in
his writings.
Bahá'u'lláh's reference to two wars on the banks of the Rhine, to
the lamentations of Berlin, and to a popular revolution in Tehran, are all
found in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas (Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh, 165-66, Synopsis and Codification extract
13 / Aqdas paragraph 78). After the First World War 'Abdu'l-Bahá
made reference to a second world war, promised that the "movement of the left"
would grow in importance, and stated that the Balkans would continue to be
unstable ('Abdu'l-Bahá, quoted in Shoghi Effendi, Advent of Divine
Justice, 89). In a tablet called "The Seven Candles of Unity,"
'Abdu'l-Bahá described the major changes that would occur in the future
organization of the world (Selections from the Writings of
'Abdu'l-Bahá, 32). These promises play a major role in popular talks
on the Bahá'í Faith.
Esslemont, 6-9, 211-51 Ferraby, 56-65162-64
The only scholarly effort to study the Bahá'í approach to
prophetic interpretation is Christopher Buck, "A Unique Eschatological
Interface: Bahá'u'lláh and Cross-Cultural Messianism," in Peter
Smith, In Iran: Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í
History, volume 3. Peter Smith's "Millenarianism in the Bábí
and Bahá'í Religions," in Roy Wallis, ed., Millenialism and
Charisma, is a scholarly exposition of prophetic, millenialist, and
eschatological paradigms in the Bábí and Bahá'í
religions. A few of the numerous non-scholarly works on Bahá'í
prophecy include Robert F. Riggs' The Apocalypse Unsealed, an engaging,
if not strictly academic, discussion of Greek, Hebrew, and Christian esoterics,
the aim of which is to demonstrate the Bahá'í fulfillment of
ancient prophecy and the Book of Revelation. Elena Maria Marsella takes a
similar approach, though with more biblical detail, in The Quest for Eden.
Gary L. Matthews presents Bahá'í fulfillment of prophecy in
The Challenge of Bahá'u'lláh, in which he includes a
unique examination of the fulfillment of Bahá'í "scientific"
prophesies regarding elemental transmutation, atomics, evolution, space travel,
physics, etc. Craig Loehle offers comments on the probability of prophetic
fulfillment in On the Shoulders of Giants, 165-75.
COVENANT-BREAKER PROPHECIES
Certain covenant-breaker groups have given a strong emphasis to millenarian
predictions, predictions which tend to attract wide media attention (e.g., "End
is nearish!" in Harper's, vol. 289 [1995]). One of the only scholarly
studies of this phenomenon in the Bahá'ís Under the Provision of
the Covenant was carried out by Robert Balch, Glen Farnsworth, and Sue Wilkins,
and published as "When the Bombs Drop: Reactions to Prophecy in a Millenial
Sect," in the Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 6:2 (1967).
¶48.1. Biblical and Islamic Prophecies.
The Bahá'í scriptures devote much space to biblical and Islamic
prophecies, and usually they are treated together, not separately.
Bahá'u'lláh's Kitáb-i-Íqán
(Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 63-155) is a lengthy treatment
of biblical and Islamic prophecy; most of the first half of the book examines
and interprets specific passages. 'Abdu'l-Bahá, in Some Answered
Questions, 36-72, 116-21, explains and gives commentary on specific
biblical passages. Commentary can also be found in Selections from the
Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá, 162-75.
Esslemont, 6-9, 15-16, 212-33 Ferraby, 164-69, 171-74
Bahá'ís have been prolific in writing about the Bible, though
they have nearly always done so from a popular perspective, and with little or
no awareness of Christian biblical scholarship. The only scholarly works were
written by Mírzá Abu'l-Fadl between 1880 and 1914; the longest is
his Bahá'í Proofs, but also of great interest are
Miracles and Metaphors and Letters and Essays 1886-1913. The
classic example of Bahá'í popular interpretation of the Bible is
William Sears' Thief in the Night, which may be read as a work that is
useful for understanding the psychology and sociology of the
Bahá'í community. More recently there has been a flood of books
about the Bahá'í interpretation of biblical prophecy, such as
Nabil Hanna's Bible Proofs: A Fireside Aid for Teaching Christians,
which consists of a compilation of Bahá'í scriptures on various
prophetic subjects, with minimal commentary; Thomas Tai-Seale's Thy Kingdom
Come: A Biblical Introduction to the Bahá'í Faith, which
consists largely of commentary on specific biblical verses; Michael Sours'
Preparing for a Bahá'í/Christian Dialogue, Volume One:
Understanding Biblical Evidence; and Hugh Motlagh's I Shall Come
Again.
¶48.2. Prophecies in Hinduism and Buddhism.
The one lengthy work in English is Jamshid Fozdar's Buddha Maitrya Amitabha
Has Appeared. This book primarily discusses Buddhist prophecy, but mentions
Hindu prophecies as well. While Fozdar's books have been criticized as
non-scholarly, they remain the most extended studies of the
Bahá'í Faith and Eastern religions, primarily Buddhism. Ferraby,
170, also discusses both. There is some discussion of Hindu prophecy in Moojan
Momen's Hinduism and the Bahá'í Faith.
¶48.3. Native American Prophecies.
There are two short works on this topic: William Willoya and Vinson Brown,
Warriors of the Rainbow: Strange and Prophetic Dreams of the Indian
Peoples; and Annie Kahn, Olin Karch, and Blu Mundy, Four Remarkable
Indian Prophecies of the Navajos, Toltecs, Mayas and Indians of Idaho.
¶48.4. Other Prophecies.
Kenneth D. Stephens' So Great A Cause! A Surprising New Look at the Latter
Day Saints describes Mormon prophecies and their fulfillment by the
Bahá'í Faith.
¶49. Psychic Phenomena and the Occult
The Bahá'í teachings affirm the reality of much of what is
referred to as the "paranormal." Just as in the womb we have faculties which
only come into use in this world, so in this world do we have faculties which
are designed for the next. Those of the so-called "psychic" powers which the
Bahá'í writings declare to be real are said to have their proper
sphere of application in the next world only. As such, 'Abdu'l-Bahá
strongly discouraged exploring and using them. Moreover, as we do not have the
capacity to understand the proper nature of things paranormal, many of the
phenomena people believe in are seen to be the products of imagination and
simple superstition.
'Abdu'l-Bahá discussed astrology, communication with spirits, and
spiritual healing in Some Answered Questions, 245-247 and 251-256. Two
compilations of primary text quotations are Lights of Guidance, 2d
edition, 512-522, and Spiritualism, Psychic Phenomena and Related
Subjects, a compilation from the Universal House of Justice, 1974.
Esslemont, 193 Smith 1996, 38, 151, 156
Smith 1987, 10, 35-8, 84, 111-12, 154-5
Randy Ricklefs published an introductory look at astrology
and the Bahá'í Faith in "Astrology: A romantic view of science,"
in Deepen, 2.1 (Spring 1994). Glenn A. Shook has briefly addressed
occultism in Mysticism, Science, and Revelation, 108-119. The relation
of occultism to early Bahá'í history is one deserving of further
study; elements of esotericism (e.g. the bátiníya) have a
long and involved history in Shí'í Islam, and the writings
of Shaykh Ahmad Ahsá'í are heavily weighted towards
the esoteric. Abbas Amanat's Resurrection and Renewal discusses the
occultism of Ahsá'í and the Báb on pages 45-46, 48-50,
117-118, and 144-146. Denis MacEoin has argued that the Báb adopted to a
large extent Ahsá'í's occasionally supernaturalist fascinations.
MacEoin has included sections on the use of amulets and talismans in Sources
for Early Bábí Doctrine and History 99-101, Rituals in
Babism and Baha'ism 14-21 and 48-51, and "Nineteenth-century
Bábí Talismans," in Studia Iranica 14.1 (1985).
Christopher Buck has challenged MacEoin's emphasis on this aspect of
Bábí and Bahá'í practice in his "Review of Denis
MacEoin's Rituals in Babism and Baha'ism" in the International
Journal of Middle East Studies, 28.3 (1996), 420. Another discussion on
relations between the Bahá'í Faith and occult movements is in
Elham Afnan's "'Abdu'l-Bahá and Ezra Pound's Circle," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 6.2 (June-Sept. 1994), 3-6.
NUMEROLOGY: THE "ABJAD" SYSTEM
The writings of Bahá'u'lláh and 'Abdu'l-Bahá are almost
entirely devoid of things occult. The one possible exception to this is a
prevalent use of the abjad system of numerology. The practice of
assigning numbers to letters in order to derive additional meaning from words
is found in all Semitic languages, most famously Hebrew and its various forms
of Qabbalah, or Cabala. It should be noted, though, that the Báb and
Bahá'u'lláh used abjad numerology simply to derive greater poetic
significance from alphabetical and numeric language and not for divination or
occult ritual, as some later Qabalists and numerologists did. Wendi Momen has
reproduced the abjad system in A Basic Bahá'í Dictionary,
5-6. Notes to the Kitáb-i-Aqdas define the numberings of some of
Bahá'u'lláh's terminology (n28, n50, n122, n172, and 252). Robert
F. Riggs' non-scholarly but intriguing The Apocalypse Unsealed examines
and employs occult numerology, gematria, and astrology in demonstrating a
Bahá'í fulfillment of the Book of Revelation. Elena Maria
Marsella takes a similar approach, though with a greater exploration of
biblical symbolism, in The Quest for Eden. Abbas Amanat gives some
examples of the use of numerology by early Bábís in
Resurrection and Renewal, 94-95. Mention should also be made of Martin
Gardner's "Farrakhan, Cabala, Baha'i and 19," in the Skeptical Inquirer,
21:2 (March/April 1997), which is a misinformed and somewhat unsympathetic
discussion of Bahá'í numerology.
¶50. Psychology
Very little has yet been written on the Bahá'í approach to
psychology. Hossain Danesh's "The Violence-Free Society: A Gift for Our
Children," in Bahá'í Studies, vol. 6, was one of the first
works produced that explored psychological issues professionally. Rhett
Diessner's "Selflessness: Congruences between the Cognitive-Developmental
Research Program and the Bahá'í Writings," in
Bahá'í Studies Journal, 3.2 (1990-1991): 1-13, is one of
the attempts to relate Bahá'í insights to the field of
developmental psychology. Fereshteh Taheri Bethel has conducted a broad, if
simple, study of one aspect of psychology, the psychology of martyrdom, in her
dissertation, A Psychological Theory of Martyrdom: A content analysis of
personal documents of Bahá'í martyrs of Iran written between 1979
and 1982, aspects of which she published as "A Psychological Theory of
Martyrdom," in World Order, 20.2/3 (Spring/Summer 1986). Ronald Roesch
offers some observations of the relevance of individual psychology to the
establishment of world peace in "Psychology and Peace," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 1.2 (1988-1989). Two works on the psychology
of spirituality are Horace Holley's "The Angel in the Garrison," reprinted from
Star of the West in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 3.3
(1990-1991), which, though first printed in 1924, is still of interest, and H.
B. Danesh's more recent book The Psychology of Spirituality.
¶51. Racial Diversity and Race Relations
Because of its stress on the oneness of humanity, the Bahá'í
Faith has a long history of advocating integration of the races, to the extent
that 'Abdu'l-Bahá praised interracial marriage as an example of the love
between the races. The Bahá'í contribution to the struggle for
racial equality is perhaps the Bahá'í Faith's most significant
contribution to American society to date, though it is a contribution that is
as yet little recognized.
'Abdu'l-Bahá, Selections from the Writings of
'Abdu'l-Bahá, 112-14. Shoghi Effendi, The Advent of Divine
Justice, 28-34. Lights of Guidance, 523-35, is on race, racism, and
aboriginal peoples. Behold Me: Bahá'í Writings on Unity is
a full compilation of Bahá'í texts focusing on race and social
unity. A compilation of Bahá'í scriptures on race unity, titled
The Power of Unity, is available and is an excellent source to use in
studying the Bahá'í position; a study guide for the work has also
been prepared. Another complete compilation of primary-source documents is
The Pupil of the Eye: African Americans in the World Order of
Bahá'u'lláh, edited by Bonnie J. Taylor. In 1991 the National
Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States issued a
statement titled The Vision of Race Unity, which describes the official
Bahá'í position on race unity and states the importance of
eliminating racial strife to the future development of American society.
Ferraby, 72, 75-76 Momen, 35-7, 62, 81
Hatcher and Martin, 75-6, 78-9, 106, 199 Smith 1987, 75-6, 108, 150-2
Huddleston, 73-76 Smith 1996, 82, 86-7, 125
There is a growing literature on the Bahá'í approach to race
relations. The classic work is a biography of the most prominent
African-American Bahá'í and the story of his efforts to promote
racial equality, both in the Bahá'í community and in American
society: Gayle Morrison's To Move the World: Louis G. Gregory and the
Advancement of Racial Unity in America. A more recent and more personal
contribution is Nathan Rutstein's To Be One, a description of his
struggle against his own racism and his reflections about overcoming racism in
society. Rutstein has followed the book with another titled Healing Racism
in America: A Prescription for the Disease. A work that attempts to place
the Bahá'í struggle within the context of the history of race
relations in the United States is Richard W. Thomas' Racial Unity: An
Imperative for Social Progress. His follow-up book Understanding Racial
Unity: A Study of U.S. Race Relations describes the history of race
relations in the United States and offers suggestions for present and future
solutions. Mark Perry's "Pioneering Racial Unity: The Chicago
Bahá'ís, 1919-39," in World Order, 20.2 (Winter 1985-86),
is an excellent study of the struggle to bring about racial integration in a
single local Bahá'í community. Alexander Garvin's "We Can Solve
Urban Problems," published in World Order, 17.2 (Winter 1982-83),
discusses many urban problems closely related to the race issue, as does June
Manning Thomas' "Race Unity: Implications for the Metropolis," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 6.4 (Dec. 1994-Mar. 1995). A refutation of
one modern psychological theory purporting to demonstrate that the differences
in intelligence between blacks and whites are real may be found in Hossain B.
Danesh and William S. Hatcher's "Errors in Jensen's Analysis," in World
Order, 11.1 (Fall 1976). Mike McMullen presents a case study in his "The
Atlanta Bahá'í Community and Race Unity: 1909-1950," in World
Order, 26.4 (Summer 1995). Circle of Unity: Bahá'í
Approaches to Current Social Issues, a volume of essays by
Bahá'ís on social issues edited by Anthony Lee, also includes
articles on or related to race relations. Dialogue has also published a
few articles and fora on race relations, though the articles, which
concentrated heavily on South African apartheid, may now be of less use; chief
among these are issues 1:1 (Winter 1986) and 1:3 (Summer/Fall 1986). "The
Journey Out of the Racial Divide," in World Order 28:2 (Winter 1996-97),
by Michael Penn, extends some social experiments done to understand racial
contention and amity to tie them in with Bahá'í solutions.
¶52. Religion: Definition of
Scholars debate the proper way to define the word religion and have not
settled on a definition. The Bahá'í Faith defines religion in
terms of divine revelation, sent to humanity through Manifestations. The human
response to the revelation is also important but often represents a source of
ideas that lead to misunderstanding or misapplication of the revelation;
therefore a Bahá'í theological definition of religion might not
include the human response.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 481-82 (Gleanings, CX);
420, bottom (Gleanings, XXXIV, near end); 233 (First
Ishráq in Tablets 125).
Esslemont, 133-34 Hatcher and Martin, 81-2
Ferraby, 38-43 Huddleston, 20-7
Seena Fazel has examined the definitions of "religion" and "world religion" in
relation to the Bahá'í Faith in "Is the Bahá'í
Faith a World Religion?" in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 6.1
(Mar.-June 1994). Moojan Momen discusses a variety of methodologies in a brief
but useful note, "The Study of Religion: Some Comments on the Methodology of
Studying Religion," in Bahá'í Studies Review, 1.1 (1991).
Much of Dann May's master's thesis The Bahá'í Principle of
Religious Unity and the Challenge of Radical Pluralism examines the
definition of religion.
¶53. Religious Dialogue and Pluralism
The Bahá'í Faith, the most recent of the major religious
traditions, acknowledges the divine inspiration behind most of the previous
religions and has teachings about their founding, history, philosophy, and
destiny. It views all the world's major religious traditions as parts of an
ongoing, developing religion that Bahá'ís sometimes call the
Religion of God. Its approach thus bears some similarities to "Perennial
Philosophy," popularized by Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, Aldous Huxley, and Frithjof
Schuon; "Phenomenology of Religion," indirectly fathered by C. G. Jung and
famously expounded by Joseph Campbell and Mircea Eliade; and "Religious
Pluralism," chiefly associated with John Hick.
Religious dialogue and pluralism is so integral a part of the
Bahá'í religion that isolating a few texts would be very
difficult. One good summary definition, though, is found in Shoghi Effendi's
World Order of Bahá'u'lláh, under the heading Fundamental
Principle of Religious Truth, 57-8.
Esslemont, 116-24 Huddleston, 22
Ferraby, 162-82 Momen, 96-103
Hatcher and Martin, 81-4, 127-29 Smith 1987, 83-4, 144-5
Thus far little work has been done on the similarities and differences between
Bahá'í philosophy and the above schools of thought. The most
in-depth article, though slightly tangential to this topic, is Moojan Momen's
"Relativism: A Basis for Bahá'í Metaphysics," in Moojan Momen,
ed., Studies in Honor of the Late Hasan M. Balyuzi, in Studies in the
Bábí and Bahá'í Religions, volume 5, 185-218.
John Hick has summarized the Pluralist position in an invited commentary,
"Interfaith and the Future," in Bahá'í Studies Review, 4.1
(1994). Phillip R. Smith explores some pluralism paradigms, including Hick's,
in "The Bahá'í Faith and Religious Diversity," in
Bahá'í Studies Review, 1.1 (1991). Moojan Momen explores
aspects of pluralism in "Fundamentalism and Liberalism: Towards an
Understanding of the Dichotomy," in Bahá'í Studies Review,
2.1 (1992). Dann May's master's thesis The Bahá'í Principle of
Religious Unity and the Challenge of Radical Pluralism is a very good
examination of different scholarly concepts of religious pluralism and
Bahá'í responses to them. An abridgement of his thesis, "The
Bahá'í Principle of Religious Unity: A Dynamic Perspective," in
Jack McLean, ed., Revisioning the Sacred: New Perspectives on a
Bahá'í Theology: Studies in the Bábí and
Bahá'í Religions, volume 8, examines the problem of pluralism
in light of the Bahá'í principle of the theological unity of
religions. This same volume includes Seena Fazel's "Interreligious Dialogue and
the Bahá'í Faith: Some Preliminary Observations," which examines
some forms of and challenges facing interreligions dialogue.
The Bahá'í teachings on other religions constitute the foundation
on which Bahá'ís base their concept of pluralism and carry out
their dialogue. One published effort to utilize Bahá'u'lláh's
teachings as a basis for dialogue with other religions is Douglas Martin's
"Bahá'u'lláh's Model for World Fellowship," in World
Order, 11.1 (Fall 1976). Much of Udo Schaefer's work treats the topic of
pluralism; his most extended study of the topic to date is Beyond the Clash
of Religions: The Emergence of a New Paradigm.
The Bahá'í relationships and approaches to the major world
religions are presented below. Most of these are not scholarly dialogues on
pluralism, but are often mildly apologetic discussions of other religions and
the Bahá'í fulfillment of their prophecies.
¶53.1. Religious Dialogue: Ahmadíyya
The Ahmadíyya movement presents a significant challenge to the
Bahá'í Faith. Ahmadism, the adherents of which number
approximately ten million, is the only other religion in modern times which
both claims independent prophecy after Muhammad (the fine theological points of
this are debated), proclaims a universalist agenda, and prosecutes this agenda
with zealous missionary activity.
Though Ahmadís have written numerous anti-Bahá'í tracts,
Bahá'ís have, aside from three passing references in Unfolding
Destiny (19, 29, 424), virtually ignored the movement. One of the most
thorough academic works on the Ahmadís, Yohanan Friedmann's Prophecy
Continuous: Aspects of Ahmadí Religious Thought and Its Medieval
Background, makes only one passing references to the Bahá'í
Faith (p. 44). A much older work, H. A. Walter's The Ahmadíya
Movement contains more references both to Babism (53 n.1, 134) and to the
Bahá'í Faith and Bahá'u'lláh (53, 138). The only
comparative works produced thus far are also short and old: a section in S.G.
Wilson's Modern Movements Among Moslems, 138-9, and a two-page reference
in The Moslem World, 31.1 (Jan. 1941), "Ahmadism and Bahaism in the Same
Boat."
¶53.2. Religious Dialogue: Buddhism
The Bahá'í scriptures affirm that the Buddha was an independent
Manifestation of God. 'Abdu'l-Bahá, however, declares that the Buddha's
original teaching of "the Oneness of God" eventually decayed into "ignorant
customs and ceremonials." (Some Answered Questions, 165f.) There are
mentions, not just in the Tripitaka, the earliest and most
authentically-original Buddhist scriptures, but in the texts of all Buddhist
traditions, of the future return of the Buddha as the Maitreya, or "Friendly,"
Buddha, sometimes also called the "Fifth Buddha." 'Abdu'l-Bahá said that
Bahá'u'lláh is Maitreya, the return of the Buddha.
Extracts from the Bahá'í Writings on Buddha, Krishna,
Zoroaster, and Related Subjects, in Compilation of Compilations,
vol. I, is the source of Bahá'í writings with the most
quotations on Buddhism.
Ferraby, 170 Huddleston, 41
A popularly written exploration of Buddhist teachings as they relate to the
Bahá'í Faith is Jamshed Fozdar's The God Of Buddha,
followed by his Buddha Maitrya-Amitabha has Appeared. Though these works
are clearly popular apologetics, and though some academics have criticized
Fozdar's manipulation of Buddhist philosophy and prophecy, they are worth
mentioning due to their relatively widespread acceptance in the
Bahá'í community. Of slightly greater academic rigor, though much
smaller in scope, is Moojan Momen's Buddhism and the Bahá'í
Faith. Jonah Winters has raised some points of Bahá'í
scholarship and Buddhism in his review of Momen's Buddhism and the
Bahá'í Faith, in Journal of Bahá'í Studies,
6.4 (Dec. 1994-Mar. 1995). Daniel Conner's "Buddhism and the
Bahá'í Faith," in World Order, 6.2 (Winter 1971-72), is a
careful and tentative exploration of points of similarity between the
Bahá'í Faith and Buddhism. Perhaps the best comparative study yet
written is Phyllis Ghim Lian Chew's The Chinese Religion and the
Bahá'í Faith, where she explores the development and
interrelationship of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, and postulates
Bahá'í parallels with them.
¶53.3. Religious Dialogue: Christianity
Bahá'í primary texts speak of Jesus Christ, who is often referred
to as "the Spirit of God," in the highest possible manner. Christianity has
come to believe that the advent of Christ, the Logos, in the person of
Jesus was the "first coming," and that Christ would one day return to earth in
the "second coming." Bahá'u'lláh declares that he is the second
coming of Christ.
References to Jesus and to Christianity in the Bahá'í writings
are far too numerous to produce a complete list here. Instead, James Heggie's
Bahá'í References to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam can
be pointed to as a comprehensive list of primary source references to
Christianity. A few of the more noteworthy and important references are as
follows: many citations of Bahá'u'lláh are to be found in
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 68-69, 84-85
(Kitáb-i-Íqán 20-29, 64, 66, 130-133), 175-80 (The
Most Holy Tablet, sometimes referred to as the Tablet to the Christians, also
in Tablets 9-17); 181-82 (first, second, and eighth Glad Tidings in
Tablets 21-22, 24); 187 (second Taráz in Tablets 35-36);
235 (ninth Ishráq in Tablets 129-130). 'Abdu'l-Bahá
discusses Christian subjects extensively; see Some Answered Questions,
16-7 and 87-139 and Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá,
51-53. A dialogue 'Abdu'l-Bahá had with a Christian pastor has been
reprinted with commentary in 'Abdu'l-Bahá, "'Abdu'l-Bahá on
Christ and Christianity," introduction by Seena Fazel, in The
Bahá'í Studies Review, 3.1 (1993): 1-18. Some notes are in
Lights of Guidance, 489-94.
Esslemont, 211-33 Huddleston, 21-25
Ferraby, 172-9
INTERPRETATIONS
Bahá'í authors have produced a great deal of work relating the
Bahá'í Faith to Christianity. The majority of this is apologetic,
often dealing with interpretations of prophecy. Though popular, and not
strictly scholarly in approach, the work of Michael Sours stands out as being
of relatively greater depth and academic usefulness. His books include A
Study of Bahá'u'lláh's Tablet to the Christians, which offers
a lengthy commentary on Bahá'u'lláh's Lawh-i-Aqdas. His
series of books titled Preparing for a Bahá'í-Christian
Dialogue may also be of interest, though the title is misleading; the books
seem primarily designed to help Bahá'ís explain their religion to
Christians. Also worth mentioning is Richard Backwell's The Christianity of
Jesus. This book does not attempt to fit Christianity to a
Bahá'í mold such that Christianity's prophecies are stressed to
the exclusion of its other teachings, as many Bahá'í books do.
Rather, Backwell presents a study of Jesus and his teachings that is merely
complemented by Bahá'í interpretations.
SCHOLARSHIP
Bahá'í scholarship covers a variety of Christian subjects. Jack
McLean's "Deification of Jesus," in World Order, 14.3/4 (Spring/Summer
1980), offers a well-informed Bahá'í perspective on the
christological and trinitarian controversies in the early church. Juan R.
Cole's "The Christian-Muslim Encounter and the Bahá'í Faith," in
World Order, 12.2 (Winter 1977-78), offers a detailed discussion of
points of disagreement between Christians and Muslims--particularly Muslim
views of Christian teachings--and the Bahá'í position on the same
issue. Often the Bahá'í position offers ways of resolving
differences between Muslims and Christians, hence this article is of use in
dialogue between Bahá'ís and either party. Seena Fazel and Khazeh
Fananapazir have published "A Bahá'í Approach to the Claims of
Exclusivity and Uniqueness in Christianity" in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 3.2 (1990-1991): 15-24. Robert Stockman has
explored related issues in "Jesus Christ in the Bahá'í Writings,"
Bahá'í Studies Review, 1.2 (April 1992). Valuable
correction and expansion of the paper is found in Michael Sours, "Concerning
differences between Christian and Bahá'í Terminology in Dr.
Robert Stockman's article 'Jesus [sic] in the Bahá'í Writings'"
in Bahá'í Studies Review, 3.1 (1993): 79-86. Christopher
Buck's dissertation, Paradise and Paradigm: Key Symbols in "Persian"
Christianity and the Bahá'í Faith, is the first full-length
comparativist study. A historical comparative survey is Moojan Momen's "Early
Relations Between Christian Missionaries and the Bábí and
Bahá'í Communities," in Moojan Momen, Studies in
Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume 1. This work
has been expanded in Moojan Momen, The Bábí and
Bahá'í Religions, 1844-1944: Some Contemporary Western
Accounts. Udo Schaefer discusses many aspects of Christianity and Christian
theology in The Imperishable Dominion, especially 4-23, and "Answer to a
Theologian," in The Light Shineth in Darkness.
APOLOGETICS
A certain amount of dialogue has already occurred as a result of Christian
attacks on the Bahá'í Faith and the Bahá'í replies;
the best examples of this apologetic literature are Huschmand Sabet's The
Heavens Are Cleft Asunder and Udo Schaefer's The Light Shineth in
Darkness. Both works, especially the latter, display familiarity with
historical-critical research on the Bible. Hatcher and Martin also address
Christian anti-Bahá'í polemic (The Bahá'í
Faith 200-202). By far the most complete and most academic response to
Christian polemic is, unfortunately, only available in German. However, its
import qualifies it for inclusion here: Udo Schaefer, Nicola Towfigh, and
Ulrigh Gollmer's Desinformation als Methode: die
Bahá'ismus-monographie des F. Ficicchia.
¶53.4. Religious Dialogue: Confucianism and Taoism
Confucius and Lao-tzu are treated equally in the Bahá'í writings:
each is seen as a great reformer and religious teacher, but not a Manifestation
or even a lesser prophet. Neither Bahá'u'lláh nor
'Abdu'l-Bahá mentions either Lao-Tzu or Taoism, but 'Abdu'l-Bahá
praises Confucius in many places (e.g. Some Answered Questions, 165f.
and Promulgation of Universal Peace, 356).
Extracts from the Bahá'í Writings on Buddha, Krishna,
Zoroaster, and Related Subjects, in Compilation of Compilations,
vol. I, contains the most quotations on Confucianism, though only one
reference to Taoism.
Phyllis Ghim Lian Chew's The Chinese Religion and the Bahá'í
Faith, where she explores the development and interrelationship of
Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, and postulates Bahá'í
parallels, is the most complete Bahá'í study to date of these
religious traditions. Chew has focused solely on Taoism in another study, "The
Great Tao," in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 4.2 (June-Sept.
1991). Jamshed Fozdar's The Fallacy of Ancestor Worship is also worth
mentioning because, though it is a short apologetic work, it contains some of
the only discussion of Confucianism in the corpus of Bahá'í
scholarship.
¶53.5. Religious Dialogue: Hinduism
Bahá'í teachings on Hinduism are more or less identical to those
on Buddhism. Hinduism, clearly, teaches of numerous incarnations, or
avatárs (lit. "descents"), of God. 'Abdu'l-Bahá affirmed one of
these, Krishna, as the prophet of whom Bahá'u'lláh represented
the return. Indeed, the conception of the avatár is so central to
Hinduism that Bahá'ís teaching the Faith in India often
explicitly refer to Bahá'u'lláh as an avatár.
Extracts from the Bahá'í Writings on Buddha, Krishna,
Zoroaster, and Related Subjects, in Compilation of Compilations,
vol. I, contains the most quotations on Hinduism. A few notes are in
Lights of Guidance, 502-3.
Ferraby, 170 Smith 1996, 93, 144-5
Huddleston, 41
Most works published on the Bahá'í Faith and Hinduism are not
relevant to this bibliography, being both apologetic and short brochures. The
exceptions are Moojan Momen's Hinduism and the Bahá'í Faith,
which attempts to relate the teachings of these two traditions and S.
Raman's "My Quest for the Fulfillment of Hinduism," in World Order, 3.3
(Spring 1969) which takes a similar approach, but from the perspective of a
Hindu who has become a Bahá'í. Three other academic works with
passing references to Hinduism are a short study of the use of Hindu hymnology
in teaching the Bahá'í Faith to Hindus: William Garlington's
"Bahá'í Bhajans," in World Order, 16.2 (Winter 1982);
Garlington's "Bahá'í Conversions in Malwa, Central India," in
Moojan Momen, From Iran East and West: Studies in Bábí and
Bahá'í History, volume 2, which is an abridgement of his
dissertation The Bahá'í Faith in Malwa: A Study of a
Contemporary Religious Movement; and a comparison of traditional Hindu
health and healing science with Bahá'í teachings, Felicity
Rawlings' "Maharishi Ayurveda: A Bahá'í Exploration," in
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 4.3 (Sept.-Dec. 1991).
¶53.6. Religious Dialogue: Islam and Sufism
Though a great deal of scholarship examining the historical and theological
influence of Islam on the Bábí and Bahá'í religions
exists, there is little published Bahá'í-Muslim dialogue at the
moment. This is partly because, on the one hand, many official Islamic
positions regard Bahá'ís as apostates and, on the other hand,
cultural memories of persecutions are often too fresh in the minds of
Bahá'ís of a Middle Eastern background to allow their embracing
dialogue yet. Indeed, the Universal House of Justice has even cautioned
Bahá'ís against making any effort to discuss the Faith with those
Muslims of a Middle Eastern background (Developing Distinctive
Bahá'í Communities 7.44 and Lights of Guidance 428-30;
see also Duane K. Troxel's cursory "Islam: A Brief Introduction," in Deepen,
3.2.2 [Summer 1992]).
James Heggie's Bahá'í References to Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam is a comprehensive resource of primary source
references to Islam. Some of the primary mentions of Muhammad are Writings
of Bahá'u'lláh, 69-70
(Kitáb-i-Íqán 65-66, 108-111, 135-136, 185-187) and
'Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered Questions, 18-24. See also Lights
of Guidance, 494-8.
Ferraby, 46-47 Huddleston, 24-25
Hatcher and Martin, 1-5 Smith 1987, 60-1, 64
ISLAM
One article that does constitute dialogue is Juan Cole's "The Christian-Muslim
Encounter and the Bahá'í Faith," in World Order, 12.2
(Winter 1977-78). Another item, which is perhaps the most detailed examination
of the relationship between the Bahá'í Faith and another religion
as the most sophisticated attempt to conduct dialogue with it, is Heshmat
Moayyad, ed., The Bahá'í Faith and Islam: Proceedings of a
Symposium, McGill University, March 23-25, 1984. Most of the articles
contained herein are cited elsewhere in their places of direct relevance. Seena
Fazel and Khazeh Fananapazir have published "A Bahá'í Approach to
the Claim of Finality in Islam" in Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 5.3 (Sept.-Dec. 1993). Stephen Lambden has written a short piece
on the importance of Muhammad and Islam for the Bahá'í Faith the
aim of which is to prepare Bahá'ís for an eventual dialogue with
Muslims, "Muhammad and the Qur'án: Some Introductory Notes," in
Bahá'í Studies Review, 1.1 (1991). Two of Udo Schaefer's
essays in The Light Shineth in Darkness, "The Bahá'í Faith
and Islam" and "Muhammad and the West," provide excellent prolegomena to a
Bahá'í-Muslim dialogue. A fair number of discussions have been
occasioned by anti-Bahá'í Muslim polemics. Most are more
apologetic than scholarly. One good response is Mohsen Enáyat's "A
Commentary on the Azhar's Statement Regarding 'Bahá'ís and
Bahá'ism,'" in Bahá'í Studies Review, 2.1 (1992).
One introductory essay on an important yet under-studied topic is Moojan
Momen's "The Bahá'í Influence on the Reform Movements of the
Islamic World in the 1860's and 1870's," in Bahá'í Studies
Bulletin, 2.2 (Sept. 1983).
SUFISM
The mutual influence between Bahá'u'lláh and Sufism is far too
little studied given the importance and depth of the topic. Shoghi Effendi
provided some introductory notes of Bahá'u'lláh's interactions
with the Sufis of Sulaymáníyyih in God Passes By, 121-4, a
topic which Juan R. Cole has greatly expanded in "Bahá'u'lláh and
the Naqshbandí Sufis in Iraq, 1854-1856," in From Iran East
and West: Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í History,
volume 2. Steven Scholl examines the Sufi practice of
dhikr--chanting the "remembrance" of God--and its treatment
in the Bahá'í writings in "The Remembrance of God: An invocation
technique in Sufism and the writings of the Báb and
Bahá'u'lláh," in Bahá'í Studies Bulletin,
2.3 (Dec. 1983).
¶53.7. Religious Dialogue: Jainism
Jainism was founded around the sixth century B.C.E. by Mahávíra.
He was also known as Jina, or "Victor," hence "Jainism." Jain philosophy and
religion bear many congruences with Buddhism and Hinduism; a difference is that
asceticism and the doctrine of ahimsa, or non-injury to all living
things, while both elements of Buddhism and Hinduism, are stressed more
strongly in Jainism. Jainism currently claims approximately 2.5 million
adherents.
There are no references either to Jainism or to Mahávíra in the
Bahá'í writings. Thus, Bahá'ís can neither affirm
nor reject Mahávíra's claim to prophethood.
¶53.8. Religious Dialogue: Judaism
Bahá'í teachings regard Moses as the founder of modern
Judaism and as an independent Manifestation of God. Noah and Abraham are also
considered Manifestations. Many of the other prophets of the Hebrew Bible--the
"Old Testament"--are said to be "lesser prophets" who interpret and promote
their religion rather than reveal a new one.
Bahá'í primary texts mention Moses and the Old Testament prophets
in far too many places to present a comprehensive list here. James Heggie's
Bahá'í References to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam is a
comprehensive resource of primary source references to Judaism. Some
Answered Questions provides the fullest historical and philosophical
expositions of Bahá'í teachings on figures of the Hebrew Bible. A
few other notable references are Writings of Bahá'u'lláh,
64-5, 84 (Kitáb-i-Íqán 10-12 54-5, 62-63, 66); 462
(Gleanings, LXXXVII) and 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered
Questions, 12-115. Some brief comments are in Lights of Guidance,
498-500.
The relationship between Judaism and the Bahá'í Faith is, largely
owing to current political situations, one that needs to be discussed with
delicacy. The importance of the land of Israel as the theater of much of
Bahá'í history and the location of the Bahá'í World
Center makes it vital that Bahá'ís be clear about the great deal
of respect they hold for both Judaism and the nation of Israel. Partially due
to the tact such interrelations warrant, Bahá'ís have as of yet
produced little scholarship on Judaism.
Seemingly the only comparative work yet written is Walter Fischel's "The
Bahá'í Movement and Persian Jewry," in The Jewish Review,
March 1934. Fischel also examined some aspects of Jewish conversion to the
Bahá'í Faith in "The Jews of Persia," in Jewish Social
Studies, 12 (1950). Susan Stiles Maneck occasionally mentions Jewish
conversions in her work on Zoroastrianism. The most complete academic study of
a Jewish topic from a Bahá'í perspective is Stephen Lambden's
"The Sinaitic Mysteries: Notes on the Moses/Sinai Motifs in Bábí
and Bahá'í Scripture," in Moojan Momen, Studies in Honor of
the Late Hasan M. Balyuzi: Studies in the Bábí and
Bahá'í Religions, volume 5. This long article--which is
exhaustive in both its etymological and theological scholarship--examines
certain elements of Old Testament symbolism and their treatment in primary
Bahá'í writings. The article is an expanded variation of
Lambden's earlier "The Islamo-Bahá'í Interpretation of
Deuteronomy 33:2," in Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 2.2
(September 1983). Mírzá Abu'l-Fadl also wrote a short informal
piece entitled "Why Moses Could not See God," in Letters and Essays
1886-1913.
¶53.9. Religious Dialogue: Manichaeism
The primary Bahá'í writings make no mention of Manichaeism.
However, two articles have considered the role and person of its founder,
Mání, and the relation of the religion to the
Bahá'í Faith. The most complete Bahá'í analysis of
Manichaeism is Daniel Keith Conner's "Mani and Manichaeism: A Study in
Religious Failure," in World Order, 11.2 (Winter 1976-77). Christopher
Buck has also briefly discussed Mání, whom he considers the first
figure in history to have consciously pursued the role of world-prophet, in "A
Unique Eschatological Interface: Bahá'u'lláh and Cross-Cultural
Messianism," in Peter Smith, ed., Studies in Bábí and
Bahá'í History, volume 3.
¶53.10. Religious Dialogue: Mormonism
Joseph Smith is not considered to be either a Manifestation or a lesser
prophet, but rather a sensitive person who was influenced by the spiritual
forces Bahá'u'lláh released (Lights of Guidance, 2d
edition, 510f.) Given Smith's merely human status, he is not considered to have
had the ability to prophesy (ibid. 484). Nonetheless, Kenneth D.
Stephens has attempted to demonstrate that Smith foretold the appearance of The
Báb and Bahá'u'lláh. This is contained in the longest,
though non-academic, exposition of the relationship between the
Bahá'í Faith and Mormonism yet published, Stephens' So Great a
Cause! A Surprising New Look at the Latter Day Saints.
Lights of Guidance, 510-11, has three paragraphs on Joseph Smith.
George Townshend appears to be the first Bahá'í author to publish
on Mormonism, producing The Conversion of Mormonism in 1911 and Why I
am not a Mormon, in 1907. These are currently out of print. William Collins
has written three excellent (and available) articles about Mormonism: "The
Bahá'í Faith and Mormonism," in World Order, 15.1/2 (Fall
1980/Winter 1981); "The Bahá'í Faith and Mormonism: Further
Reflections," in World Order, 17.3 (Spring 1983); and "Research Note:
Mormonism and the Bahá'í Faith," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 3.2 (1990-1991).
¶53.11. Religious Dialogue: Native and "Primal"
Religions
The Bahá'í writings speak quite highly of the spiritual
capacities of native peoples, including especially many references to Native
North Americans. 'Abdu'l-Bahá wrote in 1916 that, should "the original
inhabitants of America" be exposed to modern education and to the
Bahá'í Faith, "they will become so enlightened that the whole
earth will be illumined." (Tablets of the Divine Plan, 32f.) Presumably
in light of this, Shoghi Effendi emphasized quite strongly and repeatedly that
the North American Bahá'ís devote especial effort to dialoguing
with native peoples. However, mentions of native spirituality and religion are
few and far between in Bahá'í literature.
Some of the more noteworthy of the numerous mentions of native peoples are
Citadel of Faith 15-18 and Lights of Guidance, 2d edition, 523f.,
530, and 599. There is a compilation of writings by 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Shoghi
Effendi, and the Universal House of Justice entitled Importance of Teaching
Indigenous People. The Bahá'í Community of Canada has
released a statement entitled "A Bahá'í Perspective on Issues of
Concern to the World's Aboriginal Peoples," reprinted in The
Bahá'í World: An International Record, 1993-94, 277-294.
This, though, is a statement on social principles, not religion.
There is very little academic work on native religions. One study of the
relationship between the Bahá'í Faith and Native North American
religion is Joseph O. Weixelman's "The Traditional Navajo Religion and the
Bahá'í Faith," in World Order, 20.1 (Fall, 1985).
Christopher Buck's lengthy essay "Native Messengers of God in Canada? A test
case for Bahá'í universalism," in Bahá'í Studies
Review, 6 (1996), argues that the Iroquois hero Deganawida can be
considered a Manifestation of God. Robert Stockman's "The Bahá'í
Faith and Primal Religions," in Deepen, 10.4.1 (1996), is a short but
useful discussion of early and mythic religions and how the station of their
prophet-magicians compares with the Bahá'í definition of
Manifestations of God. Another item of possible relevance is a video on the
Bahá'í Lakota Sioux musician and dancer Kevin Locke, entitled
"Morning Stars: A Profile of Kevin Locke," which discusses native prophecies.
¶53.12. Religious Dialogue: New Age Movements
Though very little relates the New Age movement to the Bahá'í
Faith, a common misconception is that the Faith is either a form of or is
associated with New Age thought. Many aspects of what can be ascribed in
general to the term "New Age" and the loosely-defined spectrum of groups and
beliefs of which it consists do bear similarities with some teachings of the
Bahá'í Faith: the New Age idea of the awakening of humanity in
the arrival of the Age of Aquarius is similar to the Bahá'í
teaching of the entrance into maturity of the human race; a stress on
international peace, cooperation, and the eventual dissolution of national
borders coincides well with the peaceful world government of the
Bahá'í New World Order; and the re-emphasizing of things
spiritual over and against the prevailing materialism of the age of modernity
is intrinsic to both. However, other general aspects of New Age thought, such
as the relativism of ethics, the eschewing of centralized organization, and a
common fascination with divination and the paranormal are all quite
antithetical to Bahá'í teachings.
Smith 1987, 35-8, 84, 104, 111-14, 54-5
THEOSOPHY
The one major historical interaction Bahá'ís have had with a "New
Age" group was a relatively close relationship 'Abdu'l-Bahá had with the
Theosophists. 'Abdu'l-Bahá discusses Theosophy in Paris Talks,
Promulgation of Universal Peace, and Some Answered Questions, H.M.
Balyuzi addresses the topic of 'Abdu'l-Bahá and the Theosophists in
'Abdu'l-Bahá: The Centre of the Covenant of
Bahá'u'lláh. The most complete treatment of
'Abdu'l-Bahá's relations with theosophy is K. Paul Johnson's
Initiates of Theosophical Masters, especially 97-103. He focused his
discussion further in "Theosophical Influence in Bahá'í History,"
published in Theosophical History 4:1 (January 1992). Robert Stockman
offered a response to this article from a Bahá'í perspective in a
later issue of the same journal.
Smith 1987, 91, 104, 109, 112, 149, 191,
194
NEW AGE
Aside from brief discussions in Udo Schaefer's Beyond the Clash of
Religions, pages 22-4 and 37, there have been no studies to date on the
Bahá'í Faith and the New Age movement. However, two common motifs
of New Age thought have been addressed with growing frequency by
Bahá'ís and Bahá'í scholars: near-death experiences
and life-after-death, and spirituality/spiritualism. Many of these texts are
listed above, ¶3. Afterlife. Though not new scholarship, some
useful compendiums that could strongly appeal to New Age interests.
Books written by Bahá'ís in the New Age style include Angela
Anderson's 1968 book Valley of Search, a quintessential New Age
autobiography of self-discovery in which she discusses her experiences with the
teachings of Ouspensky and Gurdjieff and working with gurus in a consciously
New Age quest, ending with her becoming a Bahá'í. Much of Erik
Blumenthal's work, such as his The Way to Inner Freedom: A Practical Guide
for Personal Development, also offers an example of "New Age"
Bahá'í literature. The multi-author Green Acre on the
Piscataqua includes a section on Swami Vivekananda and the
Bahá'í Faith and makes a passing reference to the theosophist
Annie Besant.
¶53.13. Religious Dialogue: Sabaeanism
There are, historically, two distinct groups of people known as Sabaeans. One
is the Sabaeans of Harrán, a "pagan" sect which flourished in the early
times of Islam. Muslim writers have written extensively about the group.
However, the Qur'án includes the Sabaeans as "People of the Book" three
times (2:62, 5:69, and 22:17), and the Bahá'í writings list the
Sabaean religion as one of the first world religions of which any record exists
today and as one of the nine "true" religions surviving today. This religious
group would appear to be, not the Sabaeans of Harrán, but rather a
distinct religion of the Abrahamic tradition that flourished in Mesopotamia in
the early centuries B.C.E., often equated with the Mandaeans. Shoghi Effendi
considered Abraham to be a follower of the Sabaean religion, and elsewhere
wrote that it could not be determined whether the Sabaean or the Hindu
religions were older. This might seem to be a historical discrepancy, but could
be resolved if the Sabaean religion is clearly identified as a form of
Mandaeanism, which latter is widely acknowledged to be ancient.
The source of Bahá'í writings with the most quotations on the
Sabaean religion is Extracts from the Bahá'í Writings on
Buddha, Krishna, Zoroaster, and Related Subjects, in Compilation of
Compilations, vol. I. Two paragraphs are in Lights of Guidance,
502.
The only full investigation into the Sabaeans by a Bahá'í--though
containing no mention of the Bahá'í Faith--is Christopher Buck's
attempts to untangle the identity of the Sabaeans in "The Identity of
the Sabi'un: An Historical Quest," in The Muslim World 74 (July/Oct
1984). B. Hoff Conow has also written Who Were the Sabaeans? Clues to a
Forgotten Religion, but this work has not been released as of this edition.
¶53.14. Religious Dialogue: Sikhism
Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, was quite adamant that he was neither a
prophet nor an avatár, but rather simply a spiritual teacher. Later
gurus, especially the second through the fifth, made the religion somewhat
intentionally syncretistic. Partly for these reasons, Bahá'ís do
not consider Sikhism to be a "revealed" religion.
The one and only mention of Sikhism in any of the Bahá'í writings
is a passing reference in God Passes By, 302, though a footnote to
Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá, page 150, makes a
reference. No scholarship has been done on it thus far.
No comparative work has been done on Sikhism and the Bahá'í
Faith. R. Raj Singh summarized Nanak's life and teachings in "Nanak, The
Founder of Sikhism," in World Order 26.2 (Winter 1994-95), but made no
mention of the Faith in the essay. Two sources that mention Sikhism, if only in
passing, are biographies of Pritam Singh, the first Sikh Bahá'í
and a distinguished Bahá'í teacher. These appear in the
Bahá'í World vol. 15, pp. 874-6, and in Dipchand Khianra's
Imortals, a series of biographical sketches of some
Bahá'ís of India who contributed to the development of the
community there.
¶53.15. Religious Dialogue: Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism is one of the nine living religions which Bahá'ís
regard as founded by a Manifestation of God. Certain Zoroastrian scriptures
record that "a descendent of the Iranian kings" named
Sháh-Bahrám will arise and bring peace to the world.
Shoghi Effendi affirms that Bahá'u'lláh is
Sháh-Bahrám (God Passes By 95).
Excluding the traditions of the Abrahamic trajectory, the primary
Bahá'í writings mention Zoroastrianism more than any other
religion. This is the only "Eastern" religion specifically addressed by
Bahá'u'lláh (see, e.g., God Passes By, 211). See, for
example, Extracts from the Bahá'í Writings on Buddha, Krishna,
Zoroaster, and Related Subjects, in Compilation of Compilations,
vol. I, for quotations on Zoroastrianism.
Ferraby 171 Smith 1987, 92-97
Huddleston 38
The history of the Bábí and Bahá'í religions has in
many ways been closely intertwined with Zoroastrianism. A high percentage of
early Bábí converts came from Zoroastrian backgrounds, on which
topic Susan Stiles wrote her Master's thesis entitled Zoroastrian
Conversions to the Bahá'í Faith in Yazd, Írán,
a version of which she published in Juan Cole and Moojan Momen, From Iran
East and West: Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í History,
volume 2. She complemented this study under the name Susan Stiles Maneck,
in "The Conversion of Religious Minorities to the Bahá'í Faith in
Iran: Some Preliminary Observations," Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 3.3 (1990-1991): 35-48. Second, Michael Fischer, in his doctoral
dissertation Zoroastrian Iran Between Myth and Praxis, has extensively
discussed conversions to the Bahá'í Faith and also the 1903
massacre of Bahá'ís at Yazd. Parts of this have been published in
Fischer and Mehdi Abedi, Debating Muslims: Cultural Dialogues in
Postmodernity and Tradition and reprinted in Bahá'í Faith
and Islam, "Social Change and the Mirrors of Tradition: The
Bahá'ís of Yazd." The latter discusses Zoroastrianism on pages
36-41.
¶54. Revelation
While Bahá'ís acknowledge that divine inspiration is accessible
to any soul and has guided sages and philosophers in the past,
Bahá'ís generally restrict the word revelation to refer to
the process that informs, directs, and inspires the Manifestations and
the lesser prophets. See the Manifestation section for bibliographic
references.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 245 (Tablet of Wisdom, where
Bahá'u'lláh describes how he receives revelation, also in
Tablets 137-152); 424-25 (Gleanings, XXXVII-XL).
Hatcher and Martin, 81-2, 119, 122, 127
Udo Schaefer offers a fairly extended discussion of progressive revelation in
Beyond the Clash of Religions: The Emergence of a New Paradigm,
117-50. Julio Savi discusses the nature of revelation and progressive
revelation in The Eternal Quest for God, and Juan Cole examines some of
the theological functions of revelation in "The Concept of the Manifestation in
the Bahá'í Writings," Bahá'í Studies
monograph no. 9 (1982). B. Hoff Conow briefly discusses some aspects of
revelation in chapter three of The Bahá'í Teachings: A
Resurgent Model of the Universe. See¶56. Sacred History
for progressive revelation.
¶55. Ritual Practices and Ceremonies
The Bahá'í religion eschews ritual as a practice that potentially
can degenerate into meaningless form. As well, the importance of preserving the
"diversity" half of "unity in diversity"--of ensuring that the process of
unifying the world community does not inadvertently impose cultural
homogeneity--makes Bahá'ís careful not to ritualize praxis. The
only official Bahá'í rituals are: (1) recitation of the prayer
for the dead at a funeral, read by one Bahá'í on behalf of those
assembled; (2) obligatory prayer, which each Bahá'í is to perform
daily, generally in private; and 3) a minimal Bahá'í marriage
rite which consists of repeating the phrase "We will all, verily abide by the
will of God" in front of two witnesses.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 681-86 (obligatory prayers, also
in Bahá'í Prayers 4-16); 576-80 (Prayers and
Meditations, LVI, fasting prayer). Shoghi Effendi explained that
Bahá'u'lláh reduced all forms of ritual to a minimum (Lights
of Guidance, 464 and Compilation of Compilations volume I, 10). See
also Lights of Guidance, 138-40.
Esslemont, 131 Momen, 83-4
While the Bahá'í Faith has very little ritual, it does have
ceremonies: Bahá'ís celebrate marriages with marriage ceremonies
and commemorate deaths with funerals. They observe major events in
Bahá'í history as Bahá'í holy days, and the
observances can be ceremonial. The monthly Bahá'í feast is a kind
of ceremony as well, though it is devoid of ritual practices. The
Bahá'í community also observes customs: for example, when certain
prominent Bahá'ís enter a room, everyone stands.
Because of the paucity of Bahá'í ritual, very little has been
written about it. The only major work, which is actually quite detailed and
thorough, is Denis MacEoin's Rituals in Babism and Baha'ism. MacEoin
examines ritualistic practices such as pilgrimage, prayer, and festivals.
However, as Christopher Buck responds in his "Review of Denis MacEoin's
Rituals in Babism and Baha'ism," in the International Journal of
Middle East Studies, 28.3 (1996), MacEoin's emphasis on ritual strongly
distorts how Bahá'ís themselves view their religion and its
practices. Linda Walbridge's brief "Rituals: An American Bahá'í
Dilemma," in Bahá'í Studies Review, 5:1 (1995), argues
that Bahá'ís took Shoghi Effendi's prohibition against rigid
ritual and focused more on the "ritual" than on the "rigid," thereby depriving
the community of a much-needed form of religious expression. A
Bahá'í theological defense is given in Miracles and Metaphors,
pages 25-38, where Mírzá Abu'l-Fadl discusses whether
ritualistic behaviors such as prayer, fasting, and pilgrimage "have any real
benefits and useful effect."
¶56. Sacred History: Progressive Revelation
A sacred history is a theological interpretation of the significance of
history. All religions offer a sacred history. Traditional Christianity's
sacred history, for example, starts with the beginning of sin in the Garden of
Eden and the expulsion of Adam and Eve as a result; continues through the
spread of sin and the necessity to destroy humanity with a great flood; is
elaborated on through the Old Testament period and such events as the exile of
the Jews for their violation of the laws of God; reaches a critical climax in
the coming of Jesus Christ and his crucifixion, which is seen as an atonement
for sin; continues during the era of the church, a time to bring sinful
humanity to the recognition of its Lord; and foresees the return of Christ and
the establishment of God's kingdom. For the Bahá'í Faith, sacred
history is the story of God's promise to educate humanity and foster its
ever-advancing development through the sending of a series of Manifestations,
each of whom builds on the teachings of his predecessors; the story culminates
with the coming of Bahá'u'lláh, the end of human adolescence, and
the entrance into adulthood of the human race.
Esslemont, 122-28 Huddleston, 37-44
Ferraby, 38-49 Momen, 101-3
Hatcher and Martin, 81-84, 96-98, 127 Smith 1987, 73, 76, 199
Save for brief discussions of progressive revelation in Julio Savi's The
Eternal Quest for God: An Introduction to the Divine Philosophy of
'Abdu'l-Bahá, no in-depth presentations of the topic have yet been
written.
¶57. Sacred Story (Mythology)
The Bahá'í Faith does not contain a creation story, such as
Genesis, and generally eschews myth, except as a source of symbolism to explain
abstract concepts such as the spiritual journey of the soul. It interprets the
sacred stories of the previous religions in considerable detail, however. It
redefines and reinterprets the symbols in the previous holy books.
Some of Bahá'u'lláh's classic explanations of religions
symbolism are in Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 423
(Gleanings, XXXVI); 73-77 (interpretation of the symbols "sun," "moon,"
and "stars," also in Kitáb-i-Íqán 33-42).
'Abdu'l-Bahá's Some Answered Questions contains many sections
that interpret various biblical and Christian symbols. A particularly useful
example is his interpretation of the story of the Garden of Eden on 122-26.
The one article solely on the subject of myth is William Collins' "Sacred
Mythology and the Bahá'í Faith," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 2.4. Myth and symbolism are also discussed in
Ross Woodman's two commentaries, A Bahá'í Academy Course on
the Gleanings and A Bahá'í Academy Course on the
Kitáb-i-Íqán. William S. Hatcher presents some aspects
of "myth-making" in "Myths, Models, and Mysticism," in Logic and Logos:
Essays on Science, Religion, and Philosophy. Christopher Buck addresses
symbology in many places in his Symbol and Secret: Qur'an Commentary in
Bahá'u'lláh's Kitáb-i-Íqán: Studies in the
Bábí and Bahá'í Religions.
¶58. Scholarship and the Academy
The writings of the Bahá'í Faith strongly emphasize the need for
and importance of scholarship; the second of Bahá'u'lláh's
Hidden Words says that one is to "know of thine own knowledge and not
through the knowledge of thy neighbor." Nor is there any of the Islamic
culture's common suspicion of Western forms of scholarship, as indicated by the
fact that Shoghi Effendi, with 'Abdu'l-Bahá's full approval, attended
Oxford University. However, not all forms of scholarship are encouraged, for,
as Bahá'u'lláh repeatedly cautioned, some merely "begin with
words and end with words" (e.g. Epistle to the Son of the Wolf, 19 and
26, and Tablets, 52.)
Among the places in which Bahá'u'lláh discusses the import of
knowledge and describes which types of scholarship are the most useful are
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 316 (Epistle to the Son of the
Wolf, 26-7) and 195 (Tablets, 51-2). 'Abdu'l-Bahá emphasizes
the need for scholarship in Secret of Divine Civilization, 37-40 and
Promulgation of Universal Peace 295-6, and discusses the types that are
beneficial in ibid., 20-2, 360-1. Two useful collections of primary
texts are Scholarship: A Compilation and the shorter
Bahá'í Scholarship. The latter is from the
Bahá'í Studies Review 3.2 (1994), an entire issue devoted
to discussions of scholarship which includes six different selections of
extracts from the sacred texts on scholarship arranged by topic; these topics
include quotations encouraging scholarship, on ethics and methodology, and on
review. Lights of Guidance, 210-14, has relevant comments on education
and universities.
Rick Harmsen's "The Holy Grail of Objectivity," in Deepen, 3.3 (Fall
1995), is a useful if not academic discussion of some ways in which
Bahá'í studies might differ from the traditional Western
scholarship. Susan B. Brill has made similar observations in her response to
Iraj Ayman's commentary on Craig Loehle's "On Human Origins: A
Bahá'í Perspective," in Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 4:2 (Sept.-Dec. 1991). Her subsequent "Conversive Relationality in
Bahá'í Scholarship: Centering the Sacred and Decentering the
Self," in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 7:4 (June-September
1995) provides further suggestions--though written in an obfuscated style--for
revised academic approaches to create a uniquely "Bahá'í,"
consultative, non-confrontational type of scholarship. Moojan Momen presents
some initial considerations of Bahá'í scholarship, such as its
place in the Bahá'í community and the unique approaches to
scholarship offered by the Bahá'í teachings, in "Scholarship and
the Bahá'í Community," in Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 1.1 (1988-1989). William S. Hatcher examines the same subjects in
"Scholarship: A Bahá'í Perspective," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 1.2 (1988-1989). The Bahá'í
Studies Review, issue 3.2 is devoted to the subject of Bahá'í
scholarship. Besides the selections of primary text quotations listed above, it
includes Moojan Momen's "Bahá'í Scholarship -- Definitions and
Perspectives," Stephen Lambden's "Doing Bahá'í Scholarship in the
1990s: A Religious Studies Perspective," and Seena Fazel's research note "The
Bahá'í Faith and Academic Journals." Denis MacEoin has published
a few articles asserting that there are aspects of the Bahá'í
Faith that make it an unpropitious atmosphere for scholarship;
Bahá'ís have responded to each of these articles. The most
informative of these exchanges is MacEoin's "Problems of Scholarship in a
Bahá'í Context," in Bahá'í Studies Bulletin,
1.3 (1982), followed by Stephen Lambden's response in the same issue. Moojan
Momen and MacEoin offered further comments in Bahá'í Studies
Bulletin, 1.4 (1983). Anthony A. Lee discusses ethics and methodologies of
scholarship, especially of the scholar's interpretations of
Bahá'í history, in "Bahá'í Values and Historical
Inquiry: Musings on the continuing Discussion of Ethics and Methodology," in
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 3.3 (Sept. 1985). Stephen
Lambden, in the same issue, offers "Some Thoughts on the Establishment of a
Permanent Bahá'í Studies Centre and Research Institute," complete
with possible course outlines, and includes a selection of quotations on the
topic of encouraging Bahá'í scholarship. This piece has also been
reprinted in dialogue, 2:2&3 (1988).
¶59. Science and Religion
The Bahá'í Faith sees reality as one, and therefore argues that
science and religion cannot be in disagreement, since they both investigate the
same reality. This assertion of the Bahá'í Faith should not be
understood as a statement that the two have never conflicted as much as a
statement of faith that ultimately they cannot be in conflict, and a statement
of principle that Bahá'ís must seek to resolve tensions between
the two in a spirit of open-minded investigation, recognizing that truth is
relative and that human interpretations of both nature and revelation will be
imperfect.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 183 (eleventh Glad-Tidings in
Tablets 26); 189 (sixth Taráz in Tablets 39-40); 195
(third Tajallí in Tablets 51-52); 254 (part of tablet of
Maqsúd in Tablets 168).
Esslemont, 197-202 Hatcher and Martin, 85-89
Faizi, 80-1 Huddleston, 50-1
Ferraby, 124-29 Momen, 40-2, 139
The most prolific writer on the subject of science and religion is
unquestionably William Hatcher. His writings on the subject include "The
Science of Religion," in Bahá'í Studies, no. 2, which
consists of three papers on the relationship between science and religion;
Logic and Logos, which contains five essays on the connection between
logic and the study of the revelation; and "A Scientific Proof of the Existence
of God," in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 5.4 (Dec. 1993-Mar.
1994). Anjam Khursheed has written several essays on the relationship of
science and religion that have been published as a book called Science and
Religion: Towards the Restoration of an Ancient Harmony, as well as the
article "The Spiritual Foundations of Science," in Jack McLean, ed.,
Revisioning the Sacred: New Perspectives on a Bahá'í Theology:
Studies in the Bábí and Bahá'í Religions,
volume 8. A very useful paper is Brian Aull's "The Faith of Science and
the Method of Religion," in Journal of Bahá'í Studies,
1.2, (1988-1989), followed by G. A. Bartholomew's study of the same, "Harmony
of Science and Religion: A Complementarity Perspective," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 1.3 (1989).
EVOLUTION
An important scientific issue about which the Bahá'í
authoritative texts contain enigmatic comments is evolution. The first
scholarly exploration of these comments is by Craig Loehle, "On Human Origins:
A Bahá'í Perspective," in Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 2.4 (1989-1990), which he further explored in On the Shoulders
of Giants, 92-115. The article occasioned a good deal of commentaries and
author's responses in subsequent volumes of the Journal of
Bahá'í Studies; the most useful of these is probably Arash
Abizadeh's "Commentary on 'On Human Origins: A Bahá'í
Perspective,'" in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 3.1
(1990-1991). Two other articles examine notions of societal evolution from the
standpoint of systems theory, though they only discuss the Faith in passing:
Ervin Laszlo's intriguing "Humankind's Path to Peace in a Global Society," in
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 2.2 (1989-1990), 19-36, and
George Land's "The Evolution of Reality," in Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 3.1 (1990-1991, 19-30.
¶60. Scripture
The Bahá'í Faith regards the writings and the written record of
the oral teachings of all previous Manifestations as sacred scripture. This
includes the Jewish Bible and the Christian Bible (the Old and the New
Testaments), the Qur'án, and all the writings of the Báb and
Bahá'u'lláh, and could also include core texts of other
traditions, such as the Zoroastrian Gáthás, the Hindu Vedas, and
the Buddhist Tripitaka. The writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá, though not
regarded as "revelation," are, by virtue of their infallibility, also
considered to be scripture.
Bahá'u'lláh, Kitáb-i-Aqdas 73-74, and note 165.
Esslemont, 127-8
BACKGROUND
The writings, or tablets, of the Báb, Bahá'u'lláh,
'Abdu'l-Bahá, and Shoghi Effendi are stored at various places at the
Bahá'í World Center in Haifa, Israel. Soon they will be moved to
a building named "The Center for the Study of the Sacred Texts," which is under
construction as of this writing. Microfiche copies of the tablets are also
preserved for safekeeping at a variety of places around the world. Many texts
were lost, stolen, or destroyed, and many others are still held in private
hands. The estimated figures for the total number of individual tablets are as
follows: Bahá'u'lláh, 7,160 tablets archived, 15,000 total
estimated to have been written; 'Abdu'l-Bahá, 15,549 tablets archived,
30,800 total estimated to have been written; Shoghi Effendi, 16,370 letters
archived, 30,100 total estimated to have been written ("Bahá'í
Archives: Preserving and Safeguarding the Sacred Texts," in
'Andalíb magazine, 12.48 (Fall 1993): insert). William Collins
has described the structure of the International Bahá'í Archives
and other considerations relevant to preserving the sacred texts in "Library
and Archival Resources at the Bahá'í World Centre," in
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 3.4 (Dec. 1985).
Note: the above figures were updated in 2002; see bahai-library.org/uhj/collection.texts.html.
SCHOLARSHIP
Scholarship on scripture, Bahá'í or other, is just beginning to
develop. The development is occurring along several lines. The study of
literary symbolism is still the most common form of analysis found.
Hermeneutics and commentary is relatively little developed, and
historical-critical work on Bahá'í and other scripture from a
Bahá'í perspective is even rarer. Published to date have been are
Michael Sours, "Immanence and Transcendence in Divine Scripture," in Journal
of Bahá'í Studies, 5.2; Stephen Lambden, "The Word
Bahá: Quintessence of the Greatest Name," in The Bahá'í
Studies Review, 3.1 (1993): 19-42; Udo Schaefer, "The Balance hath been
Appointed": Some Thoughts on the Publication of the
Kitáb-i-Aqdas," in The Bahá'í Studies
Review, 3.1 (1993): 43-54; and Khazeh Fananapazir and Seena Fazel, "The
Station of the Kitáb-i-Íqán," in The
Bahá'í Studies Review, 3.1 (1993): 55-66. The Ocean of His
Words: A Reader's Guide to the Art of Bahá'u'lláh, by John
Hatcher, provides an academic analysis of the writings of
Bahá'u'lláh to evoke an awareness of their artistry. Dann May's
"A Preliminary Survey of Hermeneutical Principles Found within the
Bahá'í Writings," in Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 1.3 (1989) and Juan Cole's "Interpretation in the
Bahá'í Faith," in Bahá'í Studies Review, 5:1
(1995) each describe analytical interpretion of scripture. The international
Haj Mehdi Arjmand memorial conferences on scripture, held annually in Europe
and North America, have produced a body of soon-to-be-published papers on
scripture.
¶61. Shoghi Effendi
Shoghi Effendi (1897-1957) became the head of the Bahá'í Faith,
or Guardian, on the death of 'Abdu'l-Bahá in 1921. He built his
ministry on two documents by 'Abdu'l-Bahá: the Tablets of the Divine
Plan, which give the American Bahá'ís the task of taking the
Bahá'í religion to the entire world, and the Will and
Testament of 'Abdu'l-Bahá, which established the Guardianship,
appointed Shoghi Effendi the head of the Faith, and described the system of
local, national, and international governing bodies that the
Bahá'í religion is to have. Shoghi Effendi first established the
organizational system, which he titled the Bahá'í
Administrative Order, and then turned the administrative machinery to the
task of systematically taking the Bahá'í religion to the entire
globe. He also translated many of the writings of Bahá'u'lláh
into English, setting a standard of quality for Bahá'í
translations that was much higher than the Bahá'ís had previously
had; and he wrote extensively about basic Bahá'í teachings,
defining many doctrines in clear terms for the first time.
Esslemont, 257-63 Huddleston, 214-21
Faizi, 23-26 Momen, 127-8
Ferraby, 256-57, 261-62 Smith 1987, 115-20, 136-8
Hatcher and Martin, 61-70 Smith 1996, 101-7
BIOGRAPHY
The most complete study of the life and thought of Shoghi Effendi is The
Vision of Shoghi Effendi: Proceedings of the Association for
Bahá'í Studies Ninth Annual Conference. This collection
contains good articles on his writing and translation style, his world outlook
and personality, and personal reminiscences of him. The best biography of
Shoghi Effendi was written by his wife, Rúhíyyih
Rabbání, and is titled The Priceless Pearl. She has also
written a second book of reminiscences titled The Guardian of the
Bahá'í Faith. There is also a volume of memoirs by Ugo
Giachery titled Shoghi Effendi. Marcus Bach, a non-Bahá'í
professor of religion, has left a memoir of his meeting with Shoghi Effendi
titled simply A Meeting with Shoghi Effendi. A transcript of a talk by
Leroy Ioas, "In the Days of the Guardian: A talk by the Hand of the Cause Leroy
Ioas," in Deepen, 7.3 (Summer 1995), offers some insights into and
anecdotes about the personality of Shoghi Effendi. The essays in Richard
Hollinger, ed., Community Histories: Studies in Bábí and
Bahá'í History, volume 6, contain many passing references to
the Guardian. Two short summaries of the life and person of Shoghi Effendi are
David Hofman's "Shoghi Effendi, Expounder of the Word of God," and Helen, John,
and Amelia Danesh's "The Life of Shoghi Effendi," both of which are in Morten
Bergsmo, ed., Studying the Writings of Shoghi Effendi.
WRITINGS
For a list of the principal works from Shoghi Effendi's pen--almost all of them
compilations of his letters--see "Writings of Shoghi Effendi," in the
Bibliographies section, below. An analytical essay on Shoghi Effendi's
interpretation of the Bahá'í writings has been written by
Glenford Mitchell titled "The Literature of Interpretation: Notes on the
English Writings of Shoghi Effendi," in World Order, 7.2 (Winter
1972-73). There is one good commentary on a work of Shoghi Effendi, Ross
Woodman's A Bahá'í Academy Course on Promised Day is Come.
¶62. Sin, Evil, and Satan
The Bahá'í writings frequently make use of the symbols of Satan,
sin, and evil, but they make it clear that these terms are not to be
interpreted literally. "Evil" is simply a way of describing the lack of a
positive quality such as "good," just as darkness is the lack of light but not
a real entity; "Satan" is not a being or an independent force, but a metaphor
for the bestial, selfish nature of humanity; and "Sin," while real, does not
have the same sense of a concrete entity as it can in Chistianity.
'Abdu'l-Bahá explains the meanings of these terms in Promulgation of
Universal Peace, 230, 287; Paris Talks 177-8; and 294-5 and Some
Answered Questions, 122-5, 212-15, 248-50, 263-4, and 266-7. Lights of
Guidance also contains quotations, in 403, 512-14 and 520-22.
Esslemont, 84, 150 Hatcher and Martin, 110-1
Ferraby, 152-3 Huddleston, 54
William S. Hatcher attempts a refutation of the existence of evil using
philosophical logic in "A Logical Solution to the Problem of Evil," in Logic
and Logos: Essays on Science, Religion, and Philosophy. One very complete
study of antichrist and apocalypse imagery is Stephen Lambden's two-part series
"Antichrist-Dajjál: Some notes on the Christian and Islamic Antichrist
traditions and their Bahá'í interpretation," in
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 1.2 (1982) and 1.3 (1982).
¶63. Social Order
Bahá'u'lláh enjoined monks to leave the confines of a life
of seclusion and actively participate in the world. This principle of active
involvement over private pursuits informs much of the Bahá'í
attitude towards the social order: the communities of the world's people, from
the most local to the most global, must develop trusting working relationships
and ultimately become one as family. It thus comes as no surprise that the
Bahá'í social reform teachings, on matters such as justice,
interreligious amity, economics, race relations, and gender equality, are
perhaps the best known aspect of the Bahá'í Faith. They feature
prominently in the Bahá'í scriptures and are discussed in many
works, though not always in a very scholarly fashion.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 181-238
(Bishárát, Tarázát,
Tajallíyát, Tablet of the World, Ishráqát,
tablets in which Bahá'u'lláh advocates specific principles of
social organization (all also found in Tablets)). 'Abdu'l-Bahá,
Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá, 132-33, 283-95;
Some Answered Questions, 273-77 (about strikes). All of
'Abdu'l-Bahá's Secret of Divine Civilization is devoted to the
question of reform of society; 'Abdu'l-Bahá wrote it in 1875 as a
treatise recommending the reform of Iranian society. An entire
compilation of Bahá'í scriptural passages, titled Social and
Economic Development, has been prepared to provide an easy access to the
Bahá'í principles relevant to development.
Esslemont, 133-55 Momen, 34-5, 42-4, 50-3, 60-5
Ferraby, 94-107 Smith 1987, 74-80, 146-54
Hatcher and Martin, 93-96 Smith 1996, 124-8
Huddleston, 153-72
SOCIAL ISSUES
A few articles have been written exploring specific principles in detail. One
of the better is Hossain Danesh's "The Violence-Free Society: A Gift To Our
Children," (Bahá'í Studies, 6) which considers the roots
of violence in our society and ways to eliminate them. The entire Spring/Summer
1985 issue of World Order magazine was devoted to social issues; it
contained Gregory C. Dahl's "Values, Culture, and Development"; Kurt Hein's
"Radio for Development"; and S. Pattabi Raman's "World Education: In Quest of a
Paradigm." A volume of essays by Bahá'ís on social issues, edited
by Anthony Lee and published under the title Circle of Unity:
Bahá'í Approaches to Current Social Issues, includes articles
on peace and the anti-nuclear movement, race relations, poverty and wealth,
Marxism, and the women's movement. There was also an entire issue (1.1, Feb.
1984) of Bahá'í Studies Notebook devoted to development,
titled Towards an Ever-Advancing Civilization. Brian Aull's "The Process
of Social Change," in World Order, 23.3 (Spring/Summer 1989): 9-18, is
the best article yet written on the subject of why Bahá'ís avoid
partisan politics and advocate a unific approach to social change. Also
relevant to the Bahá'í approach to social organization is Philip
Hainsworth's Bahá'í Focus on Human Rights.
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
A large number of works have been composed that explore the application of
Bahá'í principles to social and economic development. Anne Rowley
Breneman's "Social and Economic Development Toward World Peace" is part of the
above-mentioned World Order dedicated volume. Moojan Momen's
Bahá'í Focus on Development is one of the better and
shorter works. Holly Hanson Vick's Social and Economic Development: A
Bahá'í Approach is longer and offers more depth. She has also
written several excellent articles under the name Holly Hanson: "The Spiritual
Framework of Development" in World Order, 23.1/2 (Fall 1988 Winter
1988-89); "On Morals and Material Things" in World Order, 24.2/3 (Spring
and Summer 1990); and "Bahá'í Development Strategies: A Meeting
of Social Ideologies," in Charles Lerche, ed., Emergence, 145-60. Mary
Fish's "The Spiritual Dimension of Social Development," in World Order,
24.1 (Fall 1989/winter 1989-90): 23-35, offers an excellent summary of the
Bahá'í approach to development. A particularly useful case study
of a Bahá'í social and economic development project is Kurt J.
Hein's Radio Bahá'í Ecuador: A Bahá'í
Development Project, an adaptation of the author's doctoral dissertation.
It describes the creation of the first Bahá'í radio station and
its immense impact on the local indigenous culture through its educational and
musical programs.
¶64. The Spiritual Life
The Bahá'í Faith sees every action in life as a potentially
religious act, and offers guidance about how to live one's life to its
spiritual fullest. Even the administrative order is seen as ultimately a
spiritual body, as indicated by the names given by 'Abdu'l-Bahá:
local and national spiritual assembly.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 35-59 (Hidden Words);
248-49 (Words of Wisdom in Tablets 155-157); 512 (Gleanings,
CXXX); 131-33 ("Tablet of the True Seeker," from the
Kitáb-i-Íqán 192-194 (also found in Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh, 503-5, and Gleanings, CXXV)).
'Abdu'l-Bahá, Selections from the Writings of
'Abdu'l-Bahá, 202-8. Lights of Guidance contains a section
that addresses spirituality, 540-543. The compilation
Bahá'u'lláh's Teachings on Spiritual Reality includes
sections on the spiritual life, human spiritual nature, and spiritual
education.
Esslemont, 71-87 Huddleston, 54-60, 76-86
Ferraby, 108-23 Smith 1987, 84-85
Hatcher and Martin, 101-3
Numerous Bahá'í writers have addressed the topic of spirituality.
J.A. McLean's Dimensions in Spirituality stands out in its depth and
comprehensiveness of scholarship. Another comprehensive treatment is H.B.
Danesh's The Psychology of Spirituality, which investigates the topic
largely through psychological case studies. Horace Holley's "The Angel in the
Garrison," reprinted from Star of the West in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 3.3 (1990-1991), is an old (1924) but still
interesting piece. William Hatcher's "The Concept of Spirituality"
(Bahá'í Studies, 11, reprinted in The
Bahá'í World: An International Record,, Volume XVIII, and
The Law of Love Enshrined) is the most detailed treatment available.
Daniel C. Jordan's "Knowledge, Volition, and Action: The Steps to Spiritual
Transformation," in World Order, 7.2 (Winter 1972-73) provides an
excellent theoretical model regarding spiritual growth. Jordan's "Becoming Your
True Self," in World Order, 3.1, considers the nature of human potential
and how to release that potential. Genevieve Coy's Counsels of Perfection: A
Bahá'í Guide to Mature Living represents a useful examination
of how a Bahá'í should live his or her life, written from a
popular perspective.
¶65. Tests and Growth
The process of human development is fraught with moral and spiritual choices,
which represent opportunities for spiritual growth. Such a point of moral or
spiritual choice Bahá'ís call a test. Sometimes one makes
the correct choice and does the right thing. Often one knowingly makes the
wrong choice; this is what Bahá'ís would call a sin. While
Bahá'í theology does not emphasize the evil of sin the way
traditional Christianity does, nor does it see sinfulness as an innate human
characteristic, the Bahá'í scriptures do contain many prayers
that one can say to ask for forgiveness from sin.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 183 (ninth Glad-Tidings in
Tablets 24-25); 188-89 (third and fourth Taráz in Tablets
36-38); 248-49 (Words of Wisdom in Tablets 155-156). Lights of
Guidance, 126-37, includes notes on calamities and crises.
Esslemont, 195-96 Huddleston, 56-57
Ferraby, 81-2, 151-2 Momen, 109-10
Hatcher and Martin, 109-12
¶66. Theology
There is as of yet no "systematic theology" of the Bahá'í Faith.
There are a few aspects of the religion which make the systematization of its
theology a uniquely daunting prospect. One is the sheer scope of a
Bahá'í theology. The writings of the Báb,
Bahá'u'lláh, and 'Abdu'l-Bahá are all considered to be
sacred text, and the interpretations of Shoghi Effendi to be infallible. Thus,
instead of investigating the thought of just one figure, as, say, Muslim or
Buddhist theologians can do, a systematic Bahá'í theology would
have to take into account the thought of four figures as well as the question
of any possible differences among them. A second consideration is that the
compass of theology amenable to scholastic investigation is circumscribed by
the fact that the primary figures of the Bahá'í Faith have
revealed a more complete set of teachings than have those of any previous
religion; that is, since certain theological issues, for example the nature of
prophethood, have been explicated in detail by the Bahá'í primary
figures themselves, the scope of investigation open to a Bahá'í
theologian is wholly different than that open to, say, a Christian theologian,
who must base a good deal of his or her scholarship on philosophy. A third
consideration is that Bahá'u'lláh very carefully drew
distinctions between what the human mind can and cannot comprehend. Many of the
issues that a theologian would otherwise address, for example sacred cosmology,
Bahá'u'lláh offered differing metaphors for and drew attention to
the fact that all were mere metaphors. This would seem to preclude
systematization. The above considerations must be tempered by the fact that
each one could perhaps just as easily prove to be an aid, not a hindrance, in
undertaking Bahá'í theology.
Theology is an integral part of the entire range of Bahá'í
writings. However, a few texts of particular relevance can be pinpointed. Part
two of Bahá'u'lláh's Kitáb-i-Íqán,
97-257 is devoted to a discussion of the nature of God and his
Manifestations (see Adib Taherzadeh's Revelation of
Bahá'u'lláh volume 1, 175-197). His Tablet of Wisdom, in
Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh, 135-52, stands out for its
explanations of philosophy, cosmogony, and other theological themes (see
Taherzadeh's Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh volume 4, 32-49).
Bahá'u'lláh's Tablet of All Food, a translation of which,
complete with extended notes, Stephen Lambden published in
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 3:1 (June 84), presents a
four-tiered cosmology of the worlds of God. Bijan Ma'sumián has written
a summary discussion of this in "The Realms of Divine Existence as Described in
the Tablet of All Food," in Deepen, 3.2.2 (Summer 1994).
'Abdu'l-Bahá also discusses theological and philosophical matters
extensively. Probably the best single source is Some Answered Questions.
Another crucial theological text from 'Abdu'l-Bahá is his "Commentary on
'I Was a Hidden Treasure,'" published both in original and in translation by
Moojan Momen in Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 3.4 (Dec. 1985).
Shoghi Effendi wrote what is probably the first attempt at a systematic
theology with his "Dispensation of Bahá'u'lláh," reprinted in
World Order of Bahá'u'lláh, in which he delineates the
stations of the Báb, Bahá'u'lláh, 'Abdu'l-Bahá, and
the administrative order (see William Hatcher's "An Analysis of The
Dispensation of Bahá'u'lláh," in The Vision of Shoghi
Effendi.) The compilation Bahá'u'lláh's Teachings on
Spiritual Reality includes sections on theological topics such as the
nature of God, the afterlife, and the soul.
Ferraby, 33-7, 159-61 Momen, 91-103
Hatcher and Martin, 23, 47, 116-26 Smith 1996, 65-7
Huddleston, 29-34
The early Bahá'í theologian Mírzá Abu'l-Fadl
Gulpáygání's Miracles and Metaphors and Letters
and Essays 1886-1913 contain many discussions of theological issues, though
not written in a Western academic style. One of the first publications devoted
to a single aspect of theology is Juan Cole's "The Concept of the Manifestation
in the Bahá'í Writings," Bahá'í Studies, no.
9. The best summary on Bahá'í theology is Jack McLean's
"Prolegomena to a Bahá'í Theology," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 5.1 (1992), 25-67. Udo Schaefer has touched
upon certain aspects of theology in his writings, including "Answer to a
Theologian," in The Light Shineth in Darkness, and many places in The
Imperishable Dominion, especially 15-23. Jack McLean's Dimensions in
Spirituality, though not on theology as such, addresses many of its issues.
The most complete exposition of Bahá'í theology to date is
Revisioning the Sacred: New Perspectives on a Bahá'í Theology:
Studies in the Bábí and Bahá'í Religions, ed.
Jack McLean. It contains articles on the Bahá'í Faith and
apophatic theology, Liberation Theology, Pluralism, Hermes Trismegistus, and
other topics. Another useful volume dedicated to Bahá'í theology
is Julio Savi's The Eternal Quest for God. Another complete examination
of theology, though with a slightly more philosophical focus, is B. Hoff
Conow's The Bahá'í Teachings: A Resurgent Model of the
Universe. John Hatcher examines the nature of the Manifestation in "The
Doctrine of 'The Most Great Infallibility' in Relation to the 'Station of
Distinction,'" in The Law of Love Enshrined. Moojan Momen's "Relativism:
A Basis for Bahá'í Metaphysics," in Studies in Honor of the
Late Hasan M. Balyuzi: Studies in the Bábí and
Bahá'í Religions, volume 5, discusses the worlds of God and
presents an excellent comparison of monistic versus dualistic cosmologies.
¶67. Unity / Unity in Diversity
As the keyword of Christianity is love and that of Islam is submission (to the
will of God), the keyword of the Bahá'í teachings is unity. The
motivating theme behind Bahá'u'lláh's teachings is that he came
at a time when humanity was ready to receive the teachings of one God, one
world, and one human race. Bahá'u'lláh and 'Abdu'l-Bahá
pointed out that the truest description of the created world is unity: that
religion and science are both manifestations of a single Truth and that the
same principle of attraction is what binds both atoms and people together.
However, recognizing and appreciating the diversity perceptible in all levels
of existence is just as important as recognizing the unity underlying it; hence
the principle of "unity in diversity." Favorite analogies of
'Abdu'l-Bahá are that a garden would be worthless if it did not feature
a variety of flowers, and that the harmony of a single musical chord depends
upon the diversity of notes comprising it. In the theological sphere, the
principle of unity informs the Bahá'í interpretation of all
religions as being expressions of the same truth but mediated through different
Manifestations in different cultures and different times. In the social sphere,
the principle of unity in diversity motivates Bahá'ís to teach
cooperation among nations and amity between races.
Expressions of unity pervade the Bahá'í writings. One of the best
summaries of the Bahá'í teachings on unity is
'Abdu'l-Bahá's so-called "Seven Candles of Unity" passage, in
Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá, 30-32.
Foundations of World Unity is a collection of 'Abdu'l-Bahá's
addresses and writings loosely based upon the theme of unity. One of the
clearest summary expositions of the principles of unity and unity in diversity
is Shoghi Effendi, World order of Bahá'u'lláh, 41-45.
Esslemont, 116-132 Huddleston, 70-1
Ferraby, 68-79 Momen, 34-6, 58-60
Hatcher and Martin, 74-98, esp. 78-79
OVERVIEWS
Anjam Khursheed discusses 'Abdu'l-Bahá's "Seven Candles of Unity" in
The Seven Candles of Unity, chapter 16. Full-length studies of
Bahá'í teachings on unity include Hossain B. Danesh's Unity:
The Creative Foundation of Peace and Zaerpoor Mahyad's Educational
Implications of Bahá'í Philosophy with a Special Consideration of
the Concept of Unity. B. Hoff Conow discusses some of the philosophical
facets of unity in The Bahá'í Teachings: A Resurgent Model of
the Universe, chapter 6. Dann J. May explores its theological underpinnings
and implications in "The Bahá'í Principle of Religious Unity: A
Dynamic Perspective," in Jack McLean, ed., Revisioning the Sacred: New
Perspectives on a Bahá'í Theology: Studies in the
Bábí and Bahá'í Religions, volume 8.
SPECIFIC STUDIES
The topic of unity is of course a very broad and general one. Examinations of
more specific topics include the following: June Manning Thomas has discussed
the social implications of unity for the urban culture in "Race Unity:
Implications for the Metropolis," in Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 6.4 (Dec. 1994-Mar. 1995). In a similar vein, Charles O. Lerche
examines unity vs. estrangement in "Us and Them: A Study of Alienation and
World Order," in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 5.4 (Dec.
1993-Mar. 1994). A cursory presentation of unity in the political sphere is
William Barnes' "Forging More Perfect Unions," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 5.1 (1992). Christopher Buck has examined the
symbolism of unity in relative depth in Paradise and Paradigm: Key Symbols
in "Persian" Christianity and the Bahá'í Faith, chapter
7. The National Spiritual Assembly of the United States has sponsored
two projects which sought to seek out and examine instances of racial, ethnic,
and religious unity and cooperation. Though not scholarly, they provide useful
sociological observations. These are Models of Unity I, which studied
groups in Chicago, and Models of Unity II, which studied groups in
Atlanta. Roxanne Lalonde examines a possible application of unity in diversity
to environmental ethics in "Unity in Diversity: A Conceptual Framework for a
Global Ethic of Environmental Sustainability," in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 6.3 (Sept.-Dec. 1994). The issue of divine
unity, tawhíd, has been addressed by Mírzá
Abu'l-Fadl Golpáygání in Bahá'í Proofs,
1`39-153.
ONENESS OF HUMANITY
The Bahá'í scriptures strongly emphasize the equality of all
human beings and call for the establishment of a world where all have equal
rights and opportunities.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 58 (Arabic Hidden Words,
68); 203 (sixth and seventh leaves of Paradise in Tablets 66-68); 234
(sixth Ishráq in Tablets 127-128). A classic description
and summary of the Bahá'í concept of the oneness of humanity may
be found in Shoghi Effendi, The World Order of
Bahá'u'lláh, 41-45; this passage may also be found in Call
to the Nations, 29-32.
Esslemont, 209-10 Huddleston, 69-76
Ferraby, 68-79 Momen, 34-6, 54-9, 63-5, 81
Hatcher and Martin, 75-81 Smith 1987, 75-6, 82-84
¶68. Work
The Bahá'í scriptures emphasize that work performed in the spirit
of service to humanity is a form of worship. As a result, Bahá'ís
view work in a way similar to the Protestant concept of a calling. The
Bahá'í scriptures exhort even the wealthy to have a profession.
Bahá'u'lláh specified that women as well as men should receive
vocational training, thereby granting women the right to work (an unheard-of
idea in the nineteenth-century Middle East).
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 184 (Twelfth Glad Tidings, in
Tablets 26). 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Selections from the Writings of
'Abdu'l-Bahá, 144-46. A full, if short, section is in Lights of
Guidance, 623-27.
Esslemont, 79, 143 Momen, 19
Ferraby, 99
One of the only books devoted to Bahá'í perspectives on work is
W. Craig Weaver's and Helen M. Bond's The Glorious Journey: a
Bahá'í Approach to Work and Service, which is a
popularly-written discussion of a variety of issues related to careers,
corporate work, economics, and service.
Chapter 3
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh(see also the Leiden List of the Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh)
The following is a list of the major writings of
Bahá'u'lláh published in English. Length may vary with different
editions; page numbers are just included to give the reader an idea of the size
of the work. More complete bibliographic entries for those works cited in the
guide are given in the BIBLIOGRAPHY, below.
Epistle to the Son of the Wolf. 193 p. Wilmette: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust. Many editions.
Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh. 346 p.
Wilmette: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. Many editions.
The Hidden Words. 52 p. Wilmette: Bahá'í Publishing Trust.
Many editions.
Kitáb-i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book. 296 p. Haifa:
Bahá'í World Centre, 1992.
Kitáb-i-Íqán. 274 p. Wilmette: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust. Many editions.
Prayers and Meditations. 347 p. Wilmette: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust. Many editions.
The Proclamation of Bahá'u'lláh. 127p. Haifa:
Bahá'í World Centre, 1972.
The Seven Valleys and the Four Valleys. 65 p. Wilmette:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust. Many editions.
Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh revealed after the
Kitáb-i-Aqdas. 298 p. Haifa: Bahá'í World Centre. Many
editions.
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh: A Compilation. 717 p. New Delhi:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1986.
Writings of the Báb
Very little of the Báb's revelation has been translated into
English. Denis MacEoin has provided the most complete description of the
Báb's works in his Sources for Early Bábí Doctrine and
History, which is an updated and expanded revision of his 1977 Fellowship
Dissertation for King's College, A Revised Survey of the Sources for Early
Bábí Doctrine and History. His Sources for Early
Bábí Doctrine and History contains a full listing and summary
of the Báb's known works, index of first lines, index of titles, the
location of known manuscript copies, and histories of the preservation or loss
of certain works. Shoghi Effendi provides a short list of the Báb's
best-known works in appendix one of the Dawnbreakers.
Works of the Báb published in English:
A Compilation of Passages from the Writings of the Báb. 56 p.
Compiled by the Universal House of Justice. New Delhi: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust, 1980.
Bahá'í Prayers. 276 p. 2d ed. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1982. Though most of the prayers
contained in this collection are from Bahá'u'lláh and
'Abdu'l-Bahá, there are a few from the Báb.
Selections from the Writings of the Báb. 235 p. Haifa:
Bahá'í World Centre, 1976. This is by far the longest and most
complete collection of the Báb's writings yet published in English.
Works which include some writings of the Báb:
Materials for the Study of the Bábí Religion. 380 p.
Compiled by Edward Granville Browne. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1918. This random assortment of material includes a few pieces of tangential
use, including documents on the Báb's examination at Tabríz in
1848, a bibliography of Bábí works, and an unreliable history by
Muhammad Jawád Qazvíní.
Selections from the Writings of E. G. Browne. 499 p. Edited by Moojan
Momen. Oxford: George Ronald, 1987. This work does not contain any translations
as such, but it does include Browne's summary of the Persian
Bayán as well as a wealth of other useful information and
snippets of translations.
The Dawn-Breakers: Nabíl's Narrative of the Early Days of the
Bahá'í Revelation. 685 p. By
Nabíl-i-Zarandí, translated and edited by Shoghi Effendi.
Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1932. This work does not
contain any translations of the Báb's works, but it does include many of
his recorded statements and his "Address to the Letters of the Living," pp.
92-4. This address has been reprinted in Hidden Words and Selected Holy
Writings, Malaysia: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1985, pages
93-8.
Works of the Báb in French
There have also been significant translations of the Báb's works into
European languages, especially Russian and French. I include here only the
French, since they are likely to be more accessible to the casual scholar than
the Russian.
Journal Asiatique. 1866 translation of a work by Kazem Beg of an
unidentified Arabic work of the Báb.
Kitáb-i-nuqtat al-káf and
Táríkh-i-Jadíd are two early histories of the
Bábí movement translated by E. G. Browne, in 1910 and 1893,
respectively. Though not containing major works of the Báb, and though
their authorship and accuracy are disputed, they were influential and are still
important translations.
Le Bayán Arabe, translated by A. L. M. Nicolas. 235 p. Paris:
Librarie Ernest Leroux, 1905.
Le Bayán Persan, translated in four volumes by A. L. M. Nicolas.
669 p. total. Paris: Librarie Paul Geuthner, 1911 through 1914.
Le Livre des Sept Preuves, translated by A. L. M. Nicolas. Paris:
Librarie Maison-neuve, 1902. This and the above two translations of Nicolas are
said to be accurate and valuable translations.
Religions et philosophies dans l'Asie centrale. Comte de Gobineau.
Paris, 1865. This history is the first detailed scholarly work by a Westerner
on the Bábí movement. Gobineau included a partial translation of
the Arabic Bayán as an appendix to this book. It is said to be a
poor translation with many errors.
La Religion de Bab, Reformateur Persan. M. Clement Huart. Paris: Earnest
Leroux, 1889. 64 pp. Contains about 25 pages of translations.
Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá
'Abdu'l-Bahá's published teachings fall into two categories:
translations of writings and transcriptions of talks. All of the former are
considered authentic. The latter may contain errors, and so they carry slightly
less authority. An exception is Some Answered Questions, the notes for
which 'Abdu'l-Bahá personally proofread. The following list of his major
writings published in English is divided between these two categories. Works
that are short, old, or unavailable have been excluded. This list is culled,
with permission, from William Collins, Bibliography of English-Language
Works on the Bábí and Bahá'í Faiths 1844-1985,
Oxford: George Ronald, 1990. Length may vary with different editions; page
numbers are included merely to give the reader an idea of the size of the work.
Multiple editions from different publishing houses are not listed. More
complete bibliographic entries for those works cited in the guide are given in
the BIBLIOGRAPHY, below.
'Abdu'l-Bahá's published writings:
Christ's Promise Fulfilled. 76 p. Excerpts from Some Answered
Questions. Many editions.
Compilation of Passages from the Words of 'Abdu'l-Bahá. 58 p. New
Delhi: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. 1980.
Faith for Every Man. London: 80 p. Bahá'í Publishing
Trust. 1972.
Memoirs of the Faithful. 208 p. Wilmette: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust. 1971 and 1975.
Mystery of God. 203 p. New Delhi: Bahá'í Publishing Trust.
1971 and 1979. (This book includes as many quotations about 'Abdu'l-Bahá
as by him.)
Secret of Divine Civilization. 126 p. Wilmette: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust. Many editions.
Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá. 325 p. Haifa:
Bahá'í World Centre. 1978.
Tablets of 'Abdu'l-Bahá Abbas. Three volumes. 730 p. total.
Chicago: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. Many editions. (These
translations are old and some are unreliable.)
Tablets of the Divine Plan. 54 p. (one edition is 107 p.) Wilmette:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust. Many editions.
A Traveller's Narrative Written to Illustrate the Episode of the
Báb. 110 p. Wilmette: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. Many
editions.
Will and Testament of 'Abdu'l-Bahá. 26 p. Wilmette:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust. Many editions.
Wisdom of 'Abdu'l-Bahá. 171 p. Wilmette: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust. n.d.
'Abdu'l-Bahá's published talks:
'Abdu'l-Bahá in Canada. 64 p. Toronto: National Spiritual
Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada. 1962.
'Abdu'l-Bahá in London. 134 p. London: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust. Many editions.
'Abdu'l-Bahá in New York, the City of the Covenant, April-December
1912. 79 p. New York: Bahá'í Publishing Committee. 1912 and
1931.
Foundations of World Unity. 112 p. Wilmette: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust. Many editions.
Paris Talks. 184 p. London: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. Many
editions.
Promulgation of Universal Peace. 513 p. Wilmette: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust. Many editions.
Some Answered Questions. 350 p. Wilmette: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust. Many editions.
Talks by 'Abdu'l-Bahá Given in Paris. 171 p. London: G. Bell and
Sons. Many editions.
Writings of Shoghi Effendi
The following is a list of the major writings of Shoghi Effendi
published in English. Works that are short, old, or unavailable have been
excluded. Length may vary with different editions; page numbers are just
included to give the reader an idea of the size of the work. More complete
bibliographic entries for those works cited in the guide are given in the
BIBLIOGRAPHY, below.
Advent of Divine Justice. 90 p. Wilmette: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust. Many editions.
America and the Most Great Peace. 26p. Reprinted in World Order of
Bahá'u'lláh. Wilmette: Bahá'í Publishing Trust.
Many editions.
Arohanui: Letters from Shoghi Effendi to New Zealand. 111 p. Suva, Fiji:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust. 1982.
Ascension of 'Abdu'l-Bahá. 30 p. Co-author Lady Blomfield.
London: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. 1985.
Bahá'í Administration. 155 p. New York:
Bahá'í Publishing Committee. Many editions.
Call to the Nations. 69 p. Haifa: Bahá'í World Centre.
1977. (This is a collection compiled from other previously published works.)
Citadel of Faith: Messages to America, 1947-1957. 178 p. Wilmette:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust. Many editions.
Dawn of a New Day: Messages to India, 1923-1957. 233 p. New Delhi:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust. n.d.
Directives from the Guardian. 92 p. New Delhi: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust. 1973.
Dispensation of Baha'u'llah. 65 p. Reprinted in World Order of
Bahá'u'lláh. Wilmette: Bahá'í Publishing Trust.
Many editions.
God Passes By. 412 p. Wilmette: Bahá'í Publishing Trust.
Many editions.
Guidance for Today and Tomorrow. 273 p. London: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust. 1953 and 1973.
High Endeavours: Messages to Alaska. 85 p. Anchorage: National Spiritual
Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Alaska. 1976.
Letters from the Guardian to Australia and New Zealand, 1923-1957. 140
p. Sydney: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of
Australia and New Zealand. 1970 and 1971.
Light of Divine Guidance: The Messages from the Guardian of the
Bahá'í Faith to the Bahá'ís of Germany and
Austria. 311 p. and 136 p. resp. Two volumes. Hofheim-Langenhain:
Bahá'í-Verlag. 1982 and 1985, resp.
Messages from the Guardian: Letters and Cablegrams Received by the National
Spiritual Assembly from June 21, 1932 to July 21, 1940. 78 p. New York:
Bahá'í Publishing Committee. 1940.
Messages to America: Selected Letters and Cablegrams Addressed to the
Bahá'ís of North America, 1932-1946. 118 p. Wilmette:
Bahá'í Publishing Committee, 1947.
Messages to Canada. 78 p. Toronto: National Spiritual Assembly of the
Bahá'ís of Canada. 1965.
Messages to the Bahá'í World 1950-1957. 130 p. Wilmette:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust. 1958 and 1971.
Passing of 'Abdu'l-Bahá. 36 p. Co-author Lady Blomfield. Haifa:
Rosenfeld Brothers. 1922.
Passing of the Greatest Holy Leaf: A Tribute. 12 p. Reprinted in
Bahíyyih Khánum: The Greatest Holy
Leaf. Haifa: Bahá'í World Centre. 1982.
Principles of Bahá'í Administration. 125 p. London:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust. Many editions.
Promised Day is Come. 136 p. Wilmette: Bahá'í Publishing
Committee. Many editions.
Selected Writings of Shoghi Effendi. 37 p. Wilmette:
Bahá'í Publishing Committee. 1942 and 1975.
Unfolding Destiny of British Bahá'í Community: The Messages
from the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith to the
Bahá'ís of the British Isles. 529 p. London:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust. 1981.
World Order of Bahá'u'lláh. 234 p. Wilmette:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust. Many editions.
Citations
from Major Humanities Indices
This appendix is a list of articles cited in some of the major indices of
humanities journals. It is not an exhaustive list of articles published on the
Bahá'í Faith, for it is limited to: (1) articles published within the past two
and a half decades; (2) articles found in those journals or magazines commonly
available in public and college libraries; (3) articles referenced under the
keywords Bahai, Bahaism, Bahá'u'lláh, Bábí,
and
Bábísm. It does, however, list all articles (some short book reviews
have been excluded) cited in these sources. It is for the first two of these
reasons that the researcher might find it helpful--that is, the articles
contained herein are precisely those most easily accessible.
More complete
bibliographies can be found by consulting the Index Islamicus and
William Collins' Bibliography of English-Language Works on the Bábí and
Bahá'í Faiths 1844-1985, the Arts and Humanities Citation Index,
and
the Social Sciences Citation Index. The Bahá'í Studies Bulletin,
6.2-3 (Feb. 1992) includes an appendix listing citations from AHCI and other
academic indices, and many of the later issues of the Bulletin list
addenda to Collins' Bibliography. Further, Seena Fazel has demonstrated
in "Some Observations Regarding Bibliographic Citations in Non-Bahá'í
Periodicals and the Academic Study of the Bahá'í Faith," in
Bahá'í Studies
Bulletin, 6.2-3 (Feb. 1992), and "The Bahá'í Faith and Academic Journals,"
in Bahá'í Studies Review, 3.2 (1994), that humanities indices, including
AHCI and SSCI, are not always wholly accurate or consistent about citing Bahá'í
materials.
The following indices and dates are included:
Essay and General Literature Index, 1970-June 1988;
Humanities Index, April 1974-June 1996;
Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature, March 1970-June 4
1996;
Social Sciences Index, April 1974-June 1996.
The following keywords were searched:
"Bahai," "Bahaism," "Bahá'u'lláh," "Bábí,"
"Bábísm."
Afnan, Hatcher, and an Old Bone. Denis MacEoin. Religion,
16:193-195 Ap '86.
Attack on the Bahá'ís. F. Kazemzadeh. New
Republic, 186:16-18 Je 16 '82.
Bábí Concept of Holy War. Denis MacEoin.
Religion, 12:93-129 Ap '82.
Bahá'í Faith 1957-1988: a survey of
contemporary developments. P. Smith and M.
Momen. Religion, 19:63-91 Ja '89.
Bahá'í Fundamentalism and the Academic
Study of the Bábí Movement. Denis MacEoin.
Religion, 16:57-84 Ja '86.
Bahá'ís of Iran. J. R. I. Cole. History Today,
40:24-9 Mr '90.
Bahá'ís report increased assemblies
doubling of membership in the U.S. Christian
Century, 88:616 My 19 '71.
Bahai in black Africa: a force to contend with. O Okite.
Christianity Today,
14:53 MR 13 '70.
Death inside Khomeini's jails. T. Clifton. Newsweek,
103:57 Je 18 '84.
Divine Logos and redemption: a comparison of
Bahá'í and early Christian
perspectives. M. Curtotti. Journal Ecumenical Studies, v30 p227-44 Spring '93.
End is nearish! [prediction by a Bahá'í sect
that New York City would be blown
up]. Harper's, v289 p22+ F '95.
Flower of faith that is set in concrete. J. Bhatia. Far East
Econ Rev, 136:36-7
Ap 2 '87.
From Allah's earth. Economist, 287:55 My 28-Je 3 '83.
From Bábísm to Bahá'ísm:
Problems of Militancy, Quietism, and Conflation in the
Construction of a Religion. Religion, 13:219-255 Jl '83.
Hanging heretics [Iran]. Economist, 287:43 Je 25-Jl 1
'83.
Holy Terror [persecution of Bahá'ís in
Iran]. F. M. Bordewich. Atlantic, 259:26+
Ap '87.
In the stranglehold of Teheran's mullah regime. A. J.
Fischer. Contemp Rev,
244:190-2 Ap '84.
Individual psychology and Bahá'ís.
Blumenthal, E. In Alfred Adler: his influence
on psychology today, 228-37.
Intolerance for the tolerant. Economist, 276:40 S 13 '80.
Iran's Bahá'ís: victims of continuing
genocide. B. Frelick. Christian Century,
103:1095-7 D 3 '86.
Iran's "holy war" against the Bahais. J. Mann. US News
World Report, 95:40 Ag 29
'83.
Iran's holy war on the Bahá'ís. K. L.
Woodward. Newsweek 99:73 Ja 25 '82.
Iranian millenarianism and democratic thought in the
19th century. J. R. I. Cole.
International Journal Middle East Studies, 24:1-26 F '92.
Iranian purge of a divergent faith. F. Geraci. Macleans,
94:47 Jl 13 '81.
Khomeini vs. the Bahá'ís. C. Ullman. World
Press Review, 29:61 N '82.
Life crises among the religiously committed: do sectarian
differences matter? H.
R. F. Ebaugh and others. Journal Scientific Study Religion, 23:19-31 Mr '84.
Minority that Iran persecutes. K. L. Woodward and others.
Newsweek, 95:61 Mr 24
'80.
Motif Research: Peter Berger and the
Bahá'í Faith. Peter Smith. Religion,
8:210-234 Autumn '78.
Note on MacEoin's 'Bahá'í Fundamentalism.'
Muhammad Afnan and William S. Hatcher.
Religion, 16: 187-193 Ap '86.
Notes and Comment [persecution of Bahais in Iran]. New
Yorker, 60:31-2 F 4 '85.
Orthodoxy and heterodoxy in nineteenth-century Shi'ism:
the cases of Shaykhism
and Bábísm. D. MacEoin. Journal American Orient Society, 110:323-9 Ap/Je
'90.
Persecution continues. Economist, 297:48 O 26 '85.
Review of Denis MacEoin, Rituals in
Bábísm and Bahá'ísm. Christopher Buck.
International Journal of Middle East Studies, 28:418-422 Au '96.
Review of Moojan Momen ed., The Bábí and
Bahá'í Religions, 1844-1944. Denis
MacEoin. Religion, 12:405-408 O '82.
Scholarship and anti-scholarship [review article] D.
MacEoin. Asian Affairs,
17:309-12 O '86.
Science and the Bahá'í Faith. W. S. Hatcher.
Zygon, 14:229-53 S '79.
Slow death for Iran's Bahá'ís. R. N. Ostling.
Time, 123:76 F 20 '84.
Social basis of the Bábí upheavals in Iran
(1848-53): a preliminary analysis. M.
Momen. International Journal Middle East Studies, 15:157-83 My '83.
Terror facing the Bahá'ís. F. Kazemzadeh.
NY Review of Books, 29:43-4 My 13 '82.
Their crime is faith [persecution of
Bahá'ís in Iran]. F. M. Bordewich. Reader's
Digest, 125:61-2+ D '84.
Western Islamic Scholarship and Bahá'í
Origins. Muhammad Afnan and William S.
Hatcher. Religion, 15:29-51 Ja '85.
Note: to repeat, the above listing only includes common
non-academic articles. More complete listings can be found by consulting the Index
Islamicus, William Collins' Bibliography of English-Language Works on the
Bábí and Bahá'í Faiths 1844-1985, the Arts and Humanities
Citation Index (AHCI), and the Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI).
The Bahá'í Faith in
Religion Textbooks and Encyclopedias
This Resource Guide is designed largely to assist in the creation of introductory seminars or
courses on the Bahá'í Faith. Many textbooks that a teacher would assign in such a
course either do not mention the Bahá'í Faith or offer misleading or even
incorrect presentations of it (e.g. describing it as a heretical sect of Islám). Seena Fazel
describes various treatments of the Faith in encyclopedias in his "The Bahá'í
Faith Seen Through the Eyes of Major Encyclopedias," in Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 4:3 (Sept-Dec 1991). More recently, Paul D. Numrich examined the treatment of
the Bahá'í Faith in some of these textbooks, tracing the development of the
presentation in subsequent editions of a few, in "The Bahá'í Faith in World
Religions Textbooks," in World Order 25:1 (Fall 1993).
Here are listed the most common introductory textbooks and dictionaries on the
world's religions, as well as some major encyclopedias, organized by the degree to which they
include a useful presentation of the Bahá'í Faith. Since the focus of this
bibliography is books more than authors, they are alphabetized by title. Parenthetical notes
follow most entries.
** Introductory religion textbooks, encyclopedias, and dictionaries which include a
complete, useful, and accurate presentation of the Faith
Encyclopaedia Iranica. Ed. Ehsan Yarshater. London:
Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1985-. (Without doubt the encyclopedia containing the most complete
and most numerous entries on the Faith, its history, and its major personages. Articles by a
veritable who's who of Bahá'í academics on a good variety of subjects, from
Azalís to Cosmology, Bahá'í.)
Encyclopedia of Islam. Ed. H. Gibb et al. London: Luzac & Co., 1960.
(Accurate articles but short.)
Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Ed. James Hastings. New York:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1909. (Though of course outdated, the entries contained are by
Browne and are classics.)
A Handbook of Living Religions. Ed. John R. Hinnells. London:
Penguin Books, 1985. (The article contained here is lengthy [23 pages] and accurate. However,
it is written by an ex-Bahá'í--Denis MacEoin--who occasionally speaks
negatively of the Faith. Some may consider this piece too critical to be classified as
scholarly.)
Religions of the World. Lewis M. Hopfe. New York: Macmillan
Publishing Company, 1987. (This discussion of the Faith is relatively complete and well-
written, though at ten pages it is a little too abbreviated.)
World Faiths. S. A. Nigosian. New York: St. Martins Press, 1994.
(Probably the most complete treatment of the Bahá'í Faith in any introductory
textbook. Save for a few minor inaccuracies the presentation is quite reliable.)
** Introductory religion textbooks and dictionaries which include a useful and accurate
but short presentation of the Faith
America's Alternative Religions. Ed. Timothy Miller.
Albany: SUNY Press, 1995. (Article on the Faith, "The American Bahá'í
Community in the Nineties," is good but too specific to use as a general introductory text.)
Encyclopedia Britannica. Chicago: William Benton, Publisher,
1979. (Good but insufficient entries for an encyclopedia of this size.)
Encyclopedia of Religion. Ed. Mircea Eliade. New York: Macmillan
Publishing Company, 1987. (The entries, by Alessandro Bausani, are good but noticeably short
for this, the definitive encylopedia of religion.)
Living Religions. Mary Pat Fisher. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice
Hall, 1994. (Though only two pages long, this section is well-written and sympathetic.)
The Religious Experience of Mankind. Ninian Smart. New York:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1984. (Well-written and accurate but only two pages long.)
A Sourcebook for Earth's Community of Religions. Ed. Joel
Beversluis. New York: CoNexus Press, 1995. Also published as Sourcebook for the Community
of Religions, A. Ed. Joel Beversluis. Chicago: The Council for a Parliament of the World's
Religions, 1993. (This book consists of a series of brief overviews, and the section on the Faith
provides a good explnation of basic Bahá'í history and teachings. However, it and
the other summaries are too short to use as effective introductions.)
World Religions. Warren Matthews. St. Paul: West Publishing,
1991. (Matthews' discussion of the Faith, though not very long, contains a good amount of detail
on the Faith's history and is fairly presented.)
World Religions: Western Traditions. Ed. Willard G. Oxtoby.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. (The section on the Bahá'í Faith, pp.
500-503, is well-written and useful, suffering only from brevity.)
The World's Religions. Ed. Peter Clarke. London: Reader's Digest,
1993. (Small introduction on p.205, under the "Islamic" section.)
The World's Religions. Ninian Smart. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice Hall, 1989. (Like Smart's The Religious Experience of Mankind, presentation is
accurate and fair but only two pages long.)
** Introductory religion textbooks, encyclopedias, and dictionaries which include a
relatively accurate but dated or marginally useful presentation of the Faith
The Encyclopedia Americana. Danbury, Connecticut:
Grolier Incorporated, 1992. (Articles are out of date and contain the consequent inaccuracies,
but are otherwise complete summaries.)
History of the World's Religions. David S. and John B. Noss. New
York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1990. (An otherwise very respectable textbook, its
discussion of the Faith is brief and often misleading.)
Larouse Dictionary of Beliefs and Religions. (Though suffering
from a bad writing style and minor errors, these entries are sufficiently long and detailed to
include in this section.)
** Introductory religion textbooks and dictionaries which include
a poor, partial, or
inaccurate presentation of the Faith
Academic American Encyclopedia. Danbury,
Connecticut: Grolier Incorporated,1995. (Entries are mostly accurate but too short to be of
use.
Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. (Contains numerous errors.)
The Dictionary of Bible and Religion. Gen. Ed. William H. Gentz.
Nashville: Parthenon Press, 1986. (Sympathetic but brief and not well-written.)
The Harper Collins Dictionary of Religion. Jonathon Z. Smith, ed.
San Francisco: Harper Collins Publishers, 1995. (Relatively complete entries, but containing
serious and even humorous errors.)
Many People, Many Faiths. Robert S. Ellwood. Englewood Cliffs,
N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1992. (Brief mention of the Faith as a new religious movement, on
p.387.)
A New Dictionary of Religions. John R. Hinnells, ed. Oxford:
Penguin Books Ltd. 1995. (Fairly accurate but short.)
Religious Worlds: The Comparative Study of Religion. William E.
Paden. Boston: Beacon Press, 1988. (Accurate but minimal entry.)
Ways to the Center: An Introduction to World Religions. Denise and
John T. Carmody. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1993. (Contains only
one small paragraph on the Faith, but includes a large picture of the Shrine of the
Báb.)
World Religions: An Introduction. Charles R. Monroe. Amherst:
Prometheus Books, 1995. (Minimal entry.)
The World's Religions. Huston Smith. San Francisco: Harper Collins
Publishers, 1991. (Though otherwise one of the very best introductory texts on world
religions, this book makes only one mention of the Faith.)
** Introductory religion textbooks and dictionares which make no mention of the
Faith
After Patriarchy: Feminist Transformations of the World
Religions. Ed. P.M. Cooey. Maryknoll: Orbis, 1992.
Exploring Religious Meaning. Ed. Robert C. Monk et al. Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1994.
Historical Atlas of the Religions of the World. Ed. I. Faruqi. New
York: MacMillan, 1974.
The Illustrated World's Religions. Huston Smith. San Francisco:
Harper Collins Publishers, 1994.
The Major Religions: An Introduction with Texts. T. Patrick Burke.
Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers, 1996.
Man's Religious Quest - A Reader. Ed. W. Foy. London: Open
University Press, 1978.
Mysticism in the World's Religions. Geoffrey Parrinder. London:
Sheldon Press, 1976.
Our Religions. Arvind Sharma, ed. San Francisco: Harper Collins
Publishers, 1993.
Pluralism: Challenge to World Religions. H. Coward. Maryknoll:
Orbis, 1985.
Problems of Suffering in the Religions of the World. J. Bowker.
London: Cambridge University Press, 1975.
Religions of the World. Niels C. Nielsen, Jr., et al. New York: St.
Martins, 1988.
Religious Traditions of the World. H. Byron Earhart, ed. San
Francisco: Harper Collins Publishers, 1993.
The Great Religions of the Modern World. Ed. E.J. Jurgi. Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1946.
The World's Religions. Ed. S. Sutherland. London: Routledge,
1988.
This Sacred Earth: Religion, Nature and the Environment. Ed. RS
Gottlieb. NY: Routledge, 1996.
The Varieties of Religious Experience. William James. (First
appeared in 1902 and since republished numerous times. No mention of Faith, but listed
because it is a classic and a standard.)
World Religions - Our Quest for Meaning. Raush, D.A. and C. Voss.
Minneapolis: Fortress, 1989.
World Religions and Human Liberation. D. Cohn-Sherbok.
Maryknoll: Orbis, 1992.
World Religions and World Community.R.L. Slater. NY: Colombia
UP, 1963.
World Religions in War and Peace. H.O. Thompson. Jefferson, NC:
McFarland, 1988.
A World Religions Reader. Ed. Ian S. Markham. Cambridge:
Blackwell Publishers, 1996.
DESCRIPTION
OF
BAHA'I
INTERNET RESOURCES
by Jonah Winters
last updated August 11, 2001
[Note: This article is continually being updated. Please
advise if any errors are found in it or if significant omissions have been
made. The BCCA has also prepared a similar article with less description
and more links, Baha'i
Resources on the Internet. A comprehensive overview of Baha'i discussion groups on the internet, i.e. email and usenet, can be obtained by sending a blank email to get-faq1@bcca.org. Many starting points and resources such as a glossary of internet-related terms can be found at the Getting Started page, which includes links such as How do I know which are reliable websites and which to avoid?, a Glossary of internet-related terms, Starting points for researching the humanities online, Starting points for researching the Baha'i Faith online, and Guide to finding Baha'i books online. -J.W.]
Introduction
The internet is a complex, unorganized, rapidly evolving, and
ever-changing environment. Thus, while the structure and technology of it
can be explained relatively easily, it is rarely possible to give a
complete content description for any specific topic. This document will
list most of the major resources available. The reader can use these as
entrance points into cyberspace, from which points he or she can search
and discover the rest. One can also consult the list of Publishing
Houses and Journals for email and homepage addresses. Many of these
web addresses also provide lists of links and thus can serve as starting
points.
The internet is often equated with the World Wide Web, largely because of
the relatively recent advent of graphical web browsers like Netscape and
Microsoft Internet Explorer. These allow the user to interface with many
different types of internet resource through one program, masking what is
in reality a variety of distinct internet functions. The primary types of
basic functions, or "protocols," are the World Wide Web, which allows one
to view pages of text and graphics from distant computers; email, which
allows one to send data, usually letters, from one person's private
"account" to another's; the Usenet, which allows one to read from or add
to a public message database, much as one would tack notes on to an office
bulletin-board; FTP, which transfers files from one computer to another;
and Internet Relay Chat, with which computer users who are logged-on at
the same time can type messages to each other, much like a large telephone
conference-call conducted through computers. There are other basic
protocols but they tend to be out- dated (like gopher), little-used (like
hytelnet), for somewhat advanced application (like telnet), or not yet
functional (like virtual reality).
The internet rapidly changes in many ways. Web sites and listservers
(defined below) come into and go out of existence with great rapidity, and
their addresses change even more regularly (many are operated by students
on their university's computers and so have to change addresses every time
they change or leave schools). The information contained in this section
is all current as of July 2000, but will gradually decrease in
accuracy. Should an address be invalid, the best option is to do an
internet search for it (using a source such as Yahoo or
Altavista) to see if the site has
relocated.
This guide to internet resources will first describe the main Baha'i
source for organizing and assisting with the internet, the Baha'i Computer
and Communications Association-the BCCA-and then list the major resources
for the primary features in relative order of common availability: email,
the web, the usenet, and ftp. Quotations included are from the relevant
webpages or listservers discussed and so their sources are not cited.
BCCA
The Baha'i Computer and Communications Association is, according to its
mission statement, "a group of Baha'is dedicated to promoting use of
computer, network and telecommunication technologies in the service of the
global Baha'i community and humanity in order to foster consultation, and
to propagate the healing message of Baha'u'llah." Its mandate includes:
(1) providing a pool of Baha'i technical volunteers; (2) disseminating
information and details on Baha'i computer projects around the world; (3)
providing assistance to Baha'i institutions and individuals to develop
solutions with computer and telecommunications technology; (4) encouraging
individual Baha'is to form local computer user groups which will serve
local Baha'i institutions in a given area; (5) creating conferencing and
consultation forums linking Baha'is around the world by telecommunications
and computer technologies; (6) seeking to establish computer and
communications standards that can be adopted by the Baha'i World
Community; (7) disseminating information on computing and communications
technology to the Baha'i World Community; (8) developing Computer Mediated
Communication techniques that will efficiently communicate the healing
message of Baha'u'llah to the generality of humankind; and (9) providing,
in a systematic way, a full range of communication and consultation
facilities to Baha'i educational institutions around the world.
The Baha'i Computer and Communications Association
can be contacted at:
BCCA Phone: (206) 453-8766
203 Bellevue Way N.E. Suite 314 FAX:(206) 453-7083
Bellevue, WA 98004 Webpage: www.bcca.org
USA Email: webmaster@www.bcca.org
The BCCA maintains a few basic files describing matters of interest to
Baha'i on the internet, an index for which can be obtained by sending a
blank email to get-index@bcca.org. One of these, a good if dated summary
of Baha'i online activities, can be obtained by sending a blank email to
get-faq1@bcca.org.
Email
Note: see also the FAQ at www.geocities.com/Athens/3751/faq1-list.html.
The most common use of email is for users to send messages back and forth
to each other as individuals. This is not a public feature and is not a
resource. However, there is a mechanism called a "listserver" by
which email postings can be shared amongst a private group of individuals.
One host computer will act as a central switching station for the
listserver, sending a copy of every email sent to it back out to every
member of the group. It is thus like the usenet (see below), save that the
medium of transmission is different and it tends to be a more regulated
environment. Unlike the usenet, listservers are sometimes private, not
automated, in which case one must write to a contact person to get added.
Like the usenet, listserver groups are each focused on one topic. Unlike the
usenet, these topics tend to be more specific and useful: where the usenet
tends to feature groups discussing popular culture and events, listservers
often address the needs of more private professional or academic
communities. Some listservers, such as talisman2000@egroups.com or zuhur19@egroups.com, also have web interfaces where one can read and post email.
There are numerous listservers, from private ones for small Baha'i clubs at
individual universities or for Baha'is employed at individual corporations
to public ones such as fora for Baha'i announcements, Baha'is in Japan,
Baha'i singles, Baha'i literature, Baha'i women, or Baha'i academics.
Since many of these are regional and/or private, far more exist than any
one database could know of and list. The best ways to seek specific
listservers are either to write to the BCCA at webmaster@www.bcca.org or
post a question to an appropriate public one or to soc.religion.bahai (see
below).
General Baha'i listervers
Three of the major general Baha'i listervs are bahai-announce, bahai-discuss, and
bahai-faith. Baha'i-announce is a world-wide forum for announcements of Baha'i-related matters. Baha'i-discuss is probably the largest and most active of the Baha'i-only listservers, and is used for general discussion of any matter related to the Faith which members wish to discuss. Bahai-faith is the email version of the usenet newsgroup
soc.religion.bahai (see below), designed for those without usenet access.
To subscribe to any of these three, send your request to bahai-announce-request@bcca.org, to bahai-discuss-request@bcca.org, or to bahai-faith-request@bcca.org, resp. (include your full name, Baha'i ID #, and city/state/country of residence). To post
messages to the newsgroup (which will be first screened by the
moderators), emails are sent to bahai-announce@bcca.org, bahai-discuss@bcca.org, or bahai-faith@bcca.org.
Other available
services include the Noble Creation list, which discusses social and
economic development issues, and can be subscribed to by sending a blank
email to noble-creation-request@bcca.org. Postings to Noble Creation are
sent to Noble-Creation@bcca.org, and more information can be obtained at
www.bcca.org/services/lists/noble-creation. There is a variety of
listservers for Baha'is only, including bahai-announce, which focuses on
news and other announcements of interest to the Baha'i community;
Bahai-discuss, which is a somewhat random discussion of Baha'i-related
issues; Bahai-women-converse, of issues for and about women; and others.
Listservers for both Baha'is and non-Baha'is available here include Race
Unity, for discussions of racial equality and elimination of prejudice,
and Bahai-Readings, a daily posting of excerpts from Baha'i sacred texts.
Some Baha'i listservers are also hosted at egroups.com, including race-unity@egroups.com (subscribe by sending a blank email to race-unity-subscribe@egroups.com) and bahai-environment@egroups.com.
To subscribe to one of these, write to bahai-request@bcca.org. Include the
following in the email: (1) Email address of person subscribing, in
lowercase letters only (it usually comes with the mail, but it may have an
interim host included or it may have to be extracted from other extraneous
header information); (2) name of the person subscribing, last name first;
(3) The NAME(s) of the LIST(s) you wish to subscribe to (there is more
than one list managers); if a Baha'i-only listserver, then include either
one's Baha'i ID number or, if not available, then the name of a Baha'i
that can verify your status; and (5) place of residence (city,
state/province (for US or Canada), and country). You may include your full
home address and phone numbers (home, work including area code and country
code, where applicable) for inclusion in the BCCA database, but if you do,
then you must indicate if this information can be given out to other
Baha'is on e-mail database queries. For a description of all other BCCA
mailing lists send a blank email to get-faq1@bcca.org.
Academic Baha'i listservers
A variety of scholarly listservers has been born and died in the past three
years. The three main ones in existence as of this writing are
Bahai-studies, H-Bahai, and Talisman (this is actually Talisman
two: after a brief hiatus, the group Talisman one changed mandates and
owners in June, 1996). These three groups have slightly different
atmospheres, levels and types of discussion, and often different
memberships. Some of these have splintered into smaller groups, as for example Talisman two has spun off talisman2000@egroups.com and zuhur19@egroups.com, and there are surely other academic Baha'i lists than these. The Wilmette Institute, for example, has its own public list for Baha'i studies announcements, which can be subscribed to by sending a blank email to subscribe-winews@lists.usbnc.org or visiting the website lists.usbnc.org/lyris/lyris.pl?enter=winews.
Bahai-studies
Bahai-studies is an unmoderated group maintained by Mark A. Foster. Its
mandate is "the consultative investigation of truth/reality, using the
Baha'i Teachings as its spiritual foundation. In light of the list's
purposes and objectives, it is not a discussion/announcement list in the
usual sense." It is available both in a regular version (mailings are
received in one's mail inbox as and when posted) and as a digest (mailings
are collated and received as one compilation of postings in one's inbox
once per day). To subscribe, send a message to major@jccc.net. The
subject line is to be left blank, and in the body of the text one writes
"subscribe bahai-st" (without quotation marks). All other information,
such as tag lines and signature files, should be removed. To subscribe to
the digest version, do the same but write "subscribe bahai-st-digest" in
the body instead. To post a message to the Baha'i Studies list, send it to
bahai-st@jccc.net. For this the subject line and the body of the
message can be whatever the writer wishes to post; this message will go to
every member of the group, not to the automated subscription program.
H-Bahai
H-Bahai is "an academic forum for the discussion of technical issues in
the study of the Shaykhi, Babi and Baha'i movements. Not only university
teachers and graduate students, but exceptionally qualified high school
teachers, librarians, and other intellectuals are potential candidates for
membership. A degree in the humanities or social sciences is usually
required." Membership is restricted "to individuals who have demonstrated
a serious interest in the academic study of the Shaykhi, Babi and Baha'i
Faiths, as evidenced in professional training, publications, teaching or
service to these or closely related fields, or by other relevant
significant achievements or signs of ability to contribute to academic
discourse on the subject." H-Bahai is sponsored by H-Net, the Humanities
and Social Sciences On-line of Michigan State University. Its level of
discussion tends to be fairly scholarly, and its membership is almost
exclusively academic. To join H-BAHAI, send a message to
listserver@h-net.msu.edu, with no subject line, and only this in the body:
"sub H-BAHAI firstname lastname, institution," where personal information
is substituted for "firstname lastname, institution." Capitalization does
not matter, but spelling, spaces and commas do. When you include your own
information, the message will look something like this: "sub H-BAHAI Jonah
Winters, University of Toronto." If you have any questions or experience
any difficulties in attempting to subscribe, send a message to Juan Cole,
jrcole@umich.edu. H-Bahai also has a website homepage: see below.
Talisman
Talisman is
unmoderated, meaning that any posting automatically is sent to all group
members, and unlike H-Bahai has no expectation that its members
will hold a higher or post-secondary degree. The mission statement of
Irfan, a now-defunct listserverer, applies equally well to both: "The purpose of the Irfan list is to
disseminate information and ideas emerging from the academic study of the
Baha'i Faith beyond the academic community and to facilitate discussions
of issues relating to the Baha'i Faith that are informed by academic
scholarship." Talisman can be subscribed to by sending a
blank email message to talisman9-subscribe@onelist.com
-
World Wide Web
Though the most famous and visible part of the internet, the web is
actually one of its newest. It is, however, one of the most useful means
of searching for and downloading information. Indeed, the number of
unpublished articles, histories, and provisional translations available
online, as well as the complete set of sacred writings, Baha'i
International Community statements, and other official material, makes the
web an indispensable source of information.
Standard Baha'i Sites
There are several hundred Baha'i oriented sites currently available
online, and the number is growing by at least 20% per year. One need not
list more than just a few of these, though, because one of the prime
features of the web is its ability to "link," i.e. to connect different
documents and distant sites to each other: from each one the internet user
can find indices of numerous others and quickly explore dozens of
different sites. Most of these are what are here termed "standard" Baha'i
sites, so-called because for the most part they present the same
information and the same links, differing mostly in manner of presentation
and items of regional or personal interest.
The sacred writings have been available by ftp (see below) from the Baha'i
World Center for some time. They are now mirrored to many other sites
around the world and available through web browsers. An index to some of
these sites is available at www.bcca.org/info/texts/topiclist.html. The BCCA
homepage, http://www.bcca.org, is a good starting point for other internet
Baha'i resources. From here one can find links to online compilations, The
Baha'is magazine online
(oneworld.wa.com/bahai/magazine/cover.html), Baha'i
International Community statements, relatively complete lists of
individuals' and groups' homepages, Baha'i-related photographs and
clip-art, and explanations of other resources such as chat groups and
listservers. Very good indices to all of these resources, organized differently and
perhaps more clearly, can also by found at bcca.org/bahaivision (formerly "Glen Little's Baha'i Page").
The Baha'i International Community's homepage also opens with a good
introductory online magazine on the Faith, at www.bahai.org.
Another good starting point for one wishing to explore the Baha'i webpages
without necessarily searching for specific items is the Baha'i Webring.
The Webring is a service which allows sites with a common theme to
interconnect. When one enters a webring, one can choose options such as
jumping to the next page on the ring, the previous one, or any random
site. To join this service, or to enter the Baha'i Webring from the top,
go to
webring.org/cgi-bin/webring?home&ring=bahai (this server is
frequently down; if no response, try again a day later). To enter the ring
at a randomly-chosen site, type
webring.org/cgi-bin/webring?id=112&ring=bahai&random into your
web browser.
Finally, Baha'is who have a valid United States Baha'i identity card can
access the United States Baha'i National Center's website,
www.usbnc.org. This site
contains among other things feast
messages, news, annual reports, descriptions of the major departments at
the Baha'i National Center, their functions, and answers to common
question about them.
Academic Baha'i Sites
Academic Baha'i Sites are harder to find than the standard ones—while
there are well over a hundred sites providing information of a personal or
regional interest, and linking to the same few providers of sacred texts,
images, and other common information, there is only a handful of sites
providing new and original academic information, or information presented
in a scholarly fashion.
The largest online resource for Baha'i studies is the Baha'i
Academics Resource Library, bahai-library.org. This site
features several thousand documents broken down into headings
such as Primary Source Material, which includes provisional translations,
letters from the Universal House of Justice, historical documents, and
pilgrims' notes; Secondary Source Material, which includes articles,
journalistic pieces, book reviews, court documents, and personal essays;
Resource Tools, which includes a database of Baha'i scholars,
bibliographies, journal indices, and philological tools; and a listing of
all of the useful academic sites. This Resource Guide is also available at
this site in an online format.
The other sites of academic utility will all be listed here, because it
could take some time for the researcher to find them on his or her own.
The H-Bahai listserver, run by H-Net, the "Humanities and Social Sciences
On-Line" initiative sponsored Michigan State University and supported by
National Endowment for the Humanities and the Michigan Council for the
Humanities, also has a webpage at h-net.msu.edu/~bahai. Here is
included a variety of articles, provisional translations, historical
materials in the original Arabic and Persian (available as graphic files),
book reviews, and other documents such as the "Occasional Papers in
Shaykhi, Babi and Baha'i Studies" series. The H-Bahai homepage is emerging
as a very useful site for original online publishing, and is the most
scholarly and selective collection of academic materials available.
Juan R.I. Cole's Home Page, www-personal.umich.edu/~jrcole/bahai.htm, was the first
academic webpage on the Faith. It includes numerous original Baha'i
material as well as other Islamic studies and related links. Some of these
documents, and others similar, are included at the website for the H-Bahai
listserver, http://h-net.msu.edu/~bahai. Both of these websites also feature
documents related to Babi and Baha'i history in their original Arabic and
Persian-these have been scanned and entered as photo images, which can
then be viewed online page-by-page. Moojan Momen's Religious Studies page,
http://www.northill.demon.co.uk/relstud, includes a few original and not
otherwise-available articles authored by him, and his Arjmand Colloquia
page, http://www.northill.demon.co.uk/irfan, includes abstracts from and
reports on the Haj Mehdi Arjmand seminars for the study of sacred texts.
Stephen Fuqua's site,
Spirit of Glory: The
Baha'i Faith's Studies Material, page offers a wide variety of materials, some not available elsewhere. Finally, worthy of
note is Sifter: An Institute for the Study of Baha'i Writings,
http://www.shodjai.org/new.html. Among other things Sifter features one
thousand letters of Shoghi Effendi which are available only in books
elsewhere online but here are indexed chronologically, complete with
publishing information. The North American Association for Baha'i Studies
also has a webpage, www.bahai-studies.ca.
-
Usenet
The usenet is a public "bulletin-board" system accessed through
applications with titles like "newsreader," "net news," or, in UNIX,
"trn," "rn," and "tin." It is divided up into numerous—over
21,000—individual "newsgroups," each one dedicated to discussing a
specific topic. Though joining a group is called "subscribing," joining is
actually free and automated. Newsgroups have names like
alt.fan.michael.jackson, alt.binaries.art.digitized,
comp.macintosh.utilities, rec.humor, soc.culture.iranian,
talk.clubs.boy.scouts, etc.
Thus far two newsgroups are dedicated to discussing the Baha'i Faith:
talk.religion.bahai and soc.religion.bahai. The former is somewhat new and hence might not
carried by all internet service providers. It is unmoderated, and tends to
contain many postings, sometimes critical, by non-Baha'is. In contrast,
soc.religion.bahai (often abbreviated "srb") has been in existence for a
few years and is stable and reliable. It is moderated, meaning that
editors read all submissions to the group before posting them publicly to
screen out junk mail and the occasional hate mail.
Soc.religion.bahai's mission statement defines it thus: "The newsgroup
will act as a non- threatening forum for discussing and sharing
information about the tenets, history, and texts of the Baha'i Faith.
Prior to its formation there was a good amount of traffic on this topic in
other newsgroups; this group provides a 'single point of contact' for such
discussion. Examples of posts that fall within the group's scope are: (1)
The Baha'i Faith's relation to other religions; (2) Relevance of Baha'i
principles to current world events/problems; (3) Analysis of particular
scriptural passages or themes; and (4) General Q & A."
One can subscribe to soc.religion.bahai within one's newsreader
application. If it does not appear to be available, contact the customer
service representative of your internet service provider to get it added
to your newsfeed. More information can be obtained by visiting its
website, the Soc.Religion.Bahai home page, at
bcca.org/services/srb. At this site one can access the srb
archives, as well as read introductory articles about srb, the Baha'i
Faith, a bibliography for the Faith, and a document on Baha'i Resources on
the Internet. As well, if one does not wish to or cannot use a newsreader,
all srb postings can be obtained via email-see above.
-
FTP
To date, the original collection of sacred and related texts from the
Baha'i World Center is only available via file transfer
protocol—ftp—though they are mirrored in many other places via the web
(via hypertext transfer protocol, http), such as at bahai-library.org/writings. If for any reason one seeks to
access these files from the world center instead of from the sites
mirrored on the web, one can simply use one's web browser. Type
ftp://ftp.bwc.org/bahai/ into the "location" or "go" bar. Explore the
directories or read the "readme" files to get directions. To download a
file, simply click on the file name. Before downloading a zipped file, be
sure to have the appropriate decompression software. With UNIX, at the
command prompt type "ftp," then "open ftp.bwc.org." When connected, type
"anonymous" as login and your login name (e.g., for me it's "winters") as
your password. Commands include "help" to list topics; "ls" to list files
and directories; "cd (directory name)," e.g. "cd bahai" to change
directories; "cd .." (note two periods) to move to one directory higher;
"get (filename)," e.g. "get nabil.zip" to download a file, and "quit" to
exit. If it won't let you download it is likely that you are seeing a
directory, not a file. For example, "iqan" is a folder containing
different format versions of the Kitab-i-Iqan. One must first change
directory, "cd iqan," then list contents, "ls," and then download the
desired file, e.g. "get iqa-eng-txt01-Z." This process may seem more
foreign to the new internet user and is more difficult to navigate than
simply accessing the files via the web. It is listed here for the sake of
completeness.
Software
Many pieces of Baha'i-related computer software, such as search programs,
can be either ordered or downloaded online. Ian Vink Software, ianvink.com/bahai, includes free programs such as
study guides and graphics as well as purchasable software for community
administration and other study guides. For a list of other software sites, see bahai-library.org/etc/links.html.
The authoritative Baha'i Writings are available online for handheld computers, sp. using the PalmOS (i.e. Palm Pilot) and PocketPC (Microsoft) operating systems. These have been prepared by Darren Hiebert and can be found at http://www.jkl.com/eBahai.
There are at least two CD-ROMs available which have archived almost all academic and primary-source Baha'i material available on the internet on a CD-ROM. Both are designed to be an offline equivalent of surfing Baha'i sites on the web, intended largely for use by those (1) without Internet access, (2) with a slow modem, or (3) simply wishing to have all relevant sites archived on their own computer for ease of use and speed of access. One is Graham Sorenson's, which can be ordered from bahai-library.org/cdrom. The second is the Master Baha'i Library.
"Archive" is a searchable electronic textbase of the Baha'i Writings for both Macintosh and Windows computers, which features a user-friendly Mac-like interface. It features regular updates, available for free for registered users. It can be ordered from http://bahai-library.org/archive.
"Immerse: The Electronic Baha'i Library," by Bernal Schooley, is a free set of all the sacred
Baha'i writings complete with a full text proximity search feature
(including boolean, wildcard, and phrase support searching) which allows
the user to find passages in nearly four hundred books, messages by the
Baha'i Central Figures, the Universal House of Justice, and holy books
from the major world religions. It is currently available for Windows 95
and Windows 3.1 only. The original website,
tranquillity.com/immerse, is no longer active, but the
program has appeared again at
www6.zdnet.com/cgi-bin/texis/swlib/hotfiles/info.html?fcode=000EJA. See also the new homepage, at www.lotsofschooleys.com/Immerse/index.htm.
A new entry to the software market is the "Baha'i Library Multi-Media CD-ROM," billed as "the first multimedia Baha'i reference library available to date in the Baha'i world. This multimedia reference CD is a continuance of Digital Era Productions' previous product, the Baha'is Magazine CD ROM, (www.bahaicd.com) introduced in 1997 as a multimedia version of the Baha'is Magazine." It costs $129, and is available from www.bahailibrary.com.
MARS: Multiple Author Refer System is a popular Baha'i-text search engine
which can be purchased online at crimsonpublications.com.
"Sifter: Star of the West" CD-ROM contains all 25 volumes of the original Star of the West in a single CD. Includes the article "Introduction to Star of the West" by Duane Troxel.
A final software resource to list is True Seeker, which is an online
search engine for the Baha'i sacred writings. The True Seeker home page
allows you to do key word searches of the Baha'i Writings, either by
searching all texts or a specific subset. This can be found at
metalab.unc.edu/Bahai/TrueSeeker.
VIDEOS
Most of these videos on the Bahá'í Faith are designed to
highlight an aspect of the Bahá'í Faith, but are usually prepared
in a documentary or news magazine format, and thus are often suitable for use
in the classroom. For information on how to obtain these tapes, contact the
Bahá'í Distribution Service: phone (800) 999-9019; email
bds@usbnc.org.
Bahá'í Education in India. This documentary explores the
impact the Bahá'í teachings on education and economic development
are having in rural India and describes the role of grassroots
Bahá'í governing bodies (local spiritual assemblies) in fostering
development.
Bahá'í National Convention Telecast. 120 minutes. This
video, transmitted live from the 88th Bahá'í National Convention
in Chicago in 1997, gives an insight into the proceedings of a national
convention. Includes the statement "Two Wings of a Bird: The Equality of Men
and Women."
Bahá'í Newsreel. Approx. 30-60 minutes. A series of news
videos on current events in the Bahá'í Faith, produced three or
more times a year by the National Spiritual Assembly of the
Bahá'ís of the United States. The "Bahá'í Newsreel"
is designed to inform the Bahá'ís of the major developments in
their religion, to emphasize the current concerns of the National Spiritual
Assembly and the Universal House of Justice, and, to a lesser extent, to
demonstrate what the Bahá'í Faith is doing to solve world
problems. Some newsreels may be suitable for classroom use, depending on the
need of the class and the nature of the audience.
From Haitian Roots. 20 minutes. A documentary about education and
development projects carried out by the Haitian Bahá'í community,
especially at the Anís Zunúzí School, a
Bahá'í elementary school near Port-au-Prince, Haiti.
The Green Light Expedition. Several hours in length. A documentary about
the trip of Madame Rúhíyyih Rabbání, widow of
Shoghi Effendi and one of the most prominent Bahá'ís in the
world, up the Orinoco and Amazon Rivers and into the Andes Mountains of Peru to
meet indigenous peoples of South America and encourage them to strengthen their
knowledge of the Bahá'í Faith. Parts may be suitable for
anthropology audiences, as it highlights the relationship between the
Bahá'í Faith and native peoples.
Jewel in the Lotus. 27 minutes. A video about the Bahá'í
House of Worship at Bahapur, outside New Delhi, India, from its conception in
the early years of this century through the enormously complex construction
phase to its dedication in 1986.
Lasting Remembrances. Appr. ten hours. This series of five videos
consititute the oficial video recordings of the second Bahá'í
World Congress in New York, 1992. Contents include speeches, dramatic
presentations, and performances by the World Congress choir.
Mona With the Children and The Making of the Mona Video. Approx.
45 minutes. In 1983 Islamic officials ordered ten Bahá'í women in
Shíráz to be hanged for refusing to deny their religion
and to convert to Islam. Among the ten was eighteen-year-old Mona Mahmudnezhad.
She was executed for her "crime" of teaching Bahá'í children's
classes. Her heroism inspired the writing of a song by Canadian pop star Doug
Cameron titled "Mona with the Children" which was made into a brief "rock"
video. Following the video is a description of why the video was made and what
its various scenes signify. In the process, the video describes the persecution
of the Bahá'ís of Iran in a powerful, poignant, and dignified
way. A video particularly suitable for high school and junior college
classes.
Morning Stars: A Profile of Kevin Locke. 28 minutes. An introduction to
the Bahá'í Faith as it relates to Native American culture,
religion, and prophecy, featuring Kevin Locke, a Lakota Sioux musician and
dancer who is a former member of the National Spiritual Assembly of the
Bahá'ís of the United States.
Nova Bahá'í Video Series. A series of seven tapes,
available in many languages and formats, on the basic subjects of the Faith,
including Bahá'í history, teachings for leading a
Bahá'í lifestyle, and how to teach the masses and spread the
Faith.
Peace: The Promise. A documentary on the Bahá'í
International Peace Conference, held in San Francisco in 1986, which explores
the Bahá'í commitment to world peace.
The Pilgrimage. 120 minutes. A visit to the Holy Places at the
Bahá'í World Centre in Haifa and 'Akká, Israel.
Rúhíyyih Rabbání, perhaps the most respected
Bahá'í in the world, conducts the tour. Excellent for classes
interested in the nature of Bahá'í pilgrimage, the purpose of the
Bahá'í World Centre, Bahá'í devotion to the lives
of its founders, and its modern administrative functioning.
The Prisoner of Akka. 30 min. A popular exposition of the life of
Bahá'u'lláh and his new message for humanity.
The Seat of God's Throne. 33 minutes. A documentary about the
Bahá'í World Centre of the Bahá'í Faith in Haifa,
Israel, its history, and the massive construction project it has initiates to
complete three more monumental marble buildings on the "Arc" on the side of
Mount Carmel. Though primarily designed for a Bahá'í audience,
this video is suitable for non-Bahá'ís as well.
Publishing Houses and Journals
Below are listed the few Bahá'í Publishing Trusts,
Associations for Bahá'í Studies, and independent publishing
houses and journals that publish material the reader might find useful. The
list of Bahá'í Publishing Trusts is not complete, but only
details those whose publications have been cited in the Resource Guide;
complete listings of all but the independent houses are included in every
recent edition of The Bahá'í World. Most of the below will
fulfill orders or provide catalogues upon request.
[Note: be careful to distinguish between the number "1" and the letter "l" in
the email addresses.]
Arts Dialogue Homepage: Arts Dialogue, produced by the Bahá'í
http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/7324/ Association for the Arts (BAFA), is a
For subscriptions, write: Kathleen quarterly newsletter of news, letters,
Babb Kirikushi, Etajima-cho profiles, articles, illustrations,
Aki-gun, Hiroshima-ken 73721, photographs, poems and creative writing from
Japan Email: kbabb@gol.com Cost: around the globe. The purpose of the
equivalent US$20 year newsletter is to develop the arts across all
disciplines and cultures, to follow what
artists and arts-related people are doing,
and to provide an opportunity to exchange
ideas and a forum for the analysis and
critique of the arts.
Association for Bahá'í Studies: The Australian ABS publishes occasional
Australia c/o Natalie collections of ABS articles and essays.
Mobini-Kesheh, secr. P.O. Box 4239
University of Melbourne Parkville
VIC 3052 Australia
Association for Bahá'í Studies: The Association for Bahá'í Studies: English
English Speaking Europe For Speaking Europe (ABS-ESE) publishes the
subscriptions, write: The Bahá'í Studies Review, which contains
Secretary, ABS-ESE Rutland Gate articles of about the same level of
London SW7 1PD England scholarly interest as the Journal of Bahá'í
Studies.
Association for Bahá'í Studies: The North American ABS is the first and
North America For both largest of the world's Associations for
subscriptions and editorial Bahá'í Studies. Its journal, the Journal of
matters, write: 34 Copernicus Bahá'í Studies, is the preeminent academic
Street Ottawa, Ontario K1N 7K4 journal of the Faith.
Canada Phone: (613) 233-1903 Fax
(613) 233-3644 Email:
as929@freenet.carleton.ca
Homepage:
http://www.bahai-studies.ca/~absnam
Bahá'í Book Collectors: Jon and "Jon and Chris Hendershot: Bahá'í Book
Chris Hendershot 1039 Ninth Collectors" is an online meeting place for
Street Manhattan Beach, CA collectors of Bahá'í books, magazines,
90266, USA Email: pamphlets, and ephemera in English. They
jcdhender@loop.com Homepage: help organize book auctions, coordinate
http://www.loop.com/~jcdhender/ collectors, and provide "want" and "for
trade" lists for those seeking hard-to-find
materials.
Bahá'í Booksource International The Bahai Booksource International features
5755 Rodeo Rd. Los Angeles, CA the largest selection of Bahá'í books
90016, USA Telephone: available, in a variety of languages. They
(213)933-8297 Fax: (213)933-1820 carry over 4,000 different items in 91
Email: bbi@booksource.org languages, as well as various gift items.
Homepage: http://www.booksource.org
Bahá'í Distribution Service For The Bahá'í Distribution Service is the
catalogues or orders, write: 5397 central book warehouse and distribution
Wilbanks Rd. Chattanooga, TN service in the United States. Most books
37343 Phone: (800) 999-9019 Fax: cited in the guide can be purchased from
(423) 843-0836 Email: them.
bds@usbnc.org
Bahá'í Publishing Trust: Australia The Australian BPT produces, among other
For subscriptions to Herald of the things, editions of compilations of the
South, write: Bahá'í Publications sacred writings. Their magazine, Herald of
Australia P.O. Box 285 Mona Vale the South, includes general articles on the
NSW 2103 Australia Phone: (02) Faith and often features essays on or
9913 1554 Fax: (02) 9970 6710 photographic essays of greater Oceania.
General correspondence, write: GPO
Box 283 Canberra ACT 2610
Australia Fax: 61 (0)6 247 2943
Email: bahaipub1@peg.apc.org
Bahá'í Publishing Trust: Brazil The Brazilian BPT produces some Persian and
Editora Bahá'í Brasil Rua Conego Arabic editions of the sacred writings.
Eugenito Leite, 350 05414 Sao
Paolo SP - Brazil Phone:
55-(11)-8534628
Bahá'í Publishing Trust: Germany The German BPT produces much original
Bahá'í-Verlag Eppsteiner Strasse scholarship and Persian and Arabic editions
89 D-65719 Hofheim Germany of the sacred writings.
Phone: 49-(6192)-2292 Fax:
49-(6192)-992999 Email:
bahai@geod.geonet
Bahá'í Publishing Trust: United The UK BPT occasionally publishes works of
Kingdom 6 Mount Pleasant Oakham interest to scholars.
Leicestershire LE15 6HU England
Phone: 44-(1572)-722780 Fax:
44-(1572)-724280 For sales, write:
sales@bahaibooks.co.uk For
editorial matters, write:
editorial@bahaibooks.co.uk
Bahá'í Publishing Trust: United The US BPT produces, among other things,
States For general correspondence, World Order magazine, which is "intended to
contact: Phone: 1-(708)-2511854 stimulate, inspire, and serve thinking
Fax: 1-(708)-2513652 Email: people in their search to find relationships
bpt@usbnc.org For World Order between contemporary life and contemporary
editorial matters, write: World religious teachings and philosophy" (World
Order 415 Linden Avenue Wilmette, Order statement of purpose). Its essays are
IL 60091 Email: academic but not always solely on the Faith.
worldorder@usbnc.org For World
Order subscriptions, write: World
Order Subscriber Service Bahá'í
National Center Wilmette, IL
60091
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin The Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, a publication
of scholarship, provisional translations,
and occasional correspondence from the
Universal House of Justice, was published
from 1982 to 1993. Back issues or reprints
of articles are not available as of the
moment. However, a reprint series of most of
the old Bulletin articles, as well as a new
journal called Abhá: A Journal of
Bábí-Bahá'í Studies, will soon be launched
by Stephen Lambden's Hurqalya Publications.
Crimson Publications For general Crimson Publications is best-known for
correspondence, write: P.O. Box Multiple Author Refer System (MARS), usually
1613 San Juan Capistrano, CA 92693 known as REFER, the PC computer databases of
Phone: (714) 240-2092 Fax: (714) all English writings of the Bahá'í primary
240-9599 Email: figures. They offer databases for the
crimson@compuserve.com For REFER writings of the Báb, Bahá'u'lláh,
orders, contact either Crimson 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi, and major
Publications or the Bahá'í compilations, and soon may be releasing a
Distribution Service database of the secondary sources of
Taherzadeh's The Covenant and the Revelation
of Bahá'u'lláhseries, Balyuzi's biographies
of the central figures, Nabíl's
Dawn-Breakers, and Lights of Guidance.
Crimson also publishes Bahá'í software
designed by private developers.
Deepen magazine Tsavo West Bahá'í The Tsavo West Bahá'í Institute is a
Institute P.O. Box 6081 Wilmette, non-profit organization dedicated to the
IL 60091-6081 Phone: (312) research, publication, and dissemination of
274-6593 Email: materials in support of the Bahá'í Faith.
tsavowest@earthlink.net Webpage: Its quarterly journal, Deepen magazine,
http://home.earthlink.net/~tsavowest/ publishes both popular and somewhat
scholarly articles and includes teaching
materials such as posters and clip art in
each issue.
dialogue: A Quarterly Journal dialogue was produced by a group of Bahá'ís
Exploring the Implications of the in Los Angeles publishing independently. Its
Bahá'í Faith for Our Time. write focus was "a more dynamic engagement with
to Kalimát Press, below, for contemporary intellectual, social,
ordering back issues. religious, political, and cultural currents
of thought and action." (1:1, p.2) Only six
issues, between 1986 and 1988, were
produced. Some of these back issues can be
ordered from Kalimát Press (see below).
George Ronald 46 High Street George Ronald is a major publisher of
Kidlington Oxford, England OX5 secondary Bahá'í books. They produce a great
2DN Email: variety of both popular and academic books.
sales@grpubl.demon.co.uk For orders
within the US, write: 8325 17th
Street North St. Petersburg, FL
33702
Institute for Bahá'í Studies in The Institute for Bahá'í Studies in Persian
Persian P.O. Box 65600 Dundas, produces many study materials and monographs
Ont. L9H-6Y6 Canada Phone: (905) in Persian, and occasionally publishes
628-3040 Fax: (905) 628-3276 Persian and Arabic editions of the sacred
Email: IBS@bcon.com writings. Currently they are reprinting the
Athár-i-Qalam-i-A'lá series.
Images International 5010 Austin Images International carries Bahá'í
Rd. Hixon, TN 37343-3913 Phone: audio-visual products, including deepening
(423) 870-4525 or (800) 470-4525 tapes and books on tape, as well as special
Fax: (423) 870-4774 Email: materials like t-shirts.
tenelex@chattanooga.net Homepage:
http://www.globweb.com/image
Kalimát Press Email: Kalimát Press is a small company dedicated
KalimatP@aol.com Webpage: to the publication of books and other
www.kalimat.com Editorial matters, materials on the Bahá'í Faith. It has
write: 1600 Sawtelle Blvd., Suite produced over 100 titles since its founding
34 Los Angeles, CA 90025 Phone: in 1978, focusing on Bahá'í history,
(310) 479-5668 or (800) 788-4067 scholarship, translations from Persian, and
For orders, write: Publishers Bahá'í childrens' materials. Kalimát
Services P.O. Box 2510 Novato, CA publishes the series Studies in Bábí and
94948 Phone: (415) 883-3530 Fax: Bahá'í History and -Religions, cited
(415) 883-4280 extensively throughout this guide.
Landegg Academy CH-9405 Landegg Academy has published a few useful
Wienacht/AR Switzerland Tel: materials, such as proceedings of
41-71-891 91 31 Fax: 41-71-891 43 conferences. Its main service is as one of
01 E-mail: info@landegg.org the major centers of Bahá'í studies in
Homepage: Europe. Landegg also provides a listserv of
http://www.landegg.org/landegg/ Landegg-related news. Write to
info@landegg.org, in the subject line write
"subscribe," and leave the body of the
message blank.
Naturegraph Publishers P.O. Box Naturegraph specializes in books on natural
1075 Happy Camp, CA 96039 Phone: history, crafts, wildlife, and Native
(916) 493-5353 Fax: (916) 493-5240 American studies. They also carry a
Email: naturgraph@aol.com selection of Bahá'í books on a variety of
topics.
One Country One Country Bahá'í One Country is published quarterly by the
International Community Suite 120 Bahá'í International Community, an
866 United Nations Plaza New York, international NGO (non-governmental
New York 10017 Phone: organization) which represents the worldwide
212-803-2543 Fax: 212-803-2566 membership of the Faith. Its articles
Email: 1country@bic.org Homepage: include a great deal of news about United
http://www.onecountry.org/ Nations activities and Bahá'í development
projects around the world.
OneWorld Publications For editorial OneWorld's logo is "Books for Thoughtful
matters, write: 185 Banbury Road People." They publish a wide selection of
Oxford, England OX2 7AR Phone: books on the Faith, both academic and
01865-310597 Fax: 01865-310598 popular. As well, they publish or reprint
Email: oneworld@cix.compulink.co.uk many scholarly works on other religions,
For orders within the US, write: mysticism, science, psychology, and other
P.O. Box 7 New York, New York topics.
10024 Phone: (202) 799-3854 Fax:
(212) 799-7116
Palabra Publications 3735 B Shares Palabra publishes a variety of teaching and
Place Riviera Beach, FL 33404 deepening materials, including occasional
Phone: (561 ) 845-1919 Fax: (561) compilations from the writings of
845-0126 Email: palabrapub@aol.com Bahá'u'lláh or the Universal House of
Justice. They also carry Library 2.1, a
software program similar to REFER but
designed for Macintosh.
Special Ideas 2900 W. Bristol Dr. Special Ideas is a company founded to help
Bloomington, IN 47404 Phone: provide Bahá'ís with low-cost teaching
(800) 326-1197 (812) 876-3742 materials. They sell introductory teaching
Email: seeker@indiana.edu, or aids such as games, posters, pamphlets,
bahai@bluemarble.net Webpage: displays, t-shirts, and books, and offer
www.special-ideas.com Seekernet free advice and teaching tips. Special Ideas
1-800-seekernet (800-733-5376) also sponsors Seekernet, a free information
Webpage: http://bahai.seeker.net service. Those investigating the Faith can
call 1-800-Seeker-Net (800-733-5376) to get
a free packet of introductory literature on
the Faith and the number of a Bahá'í
community local to their area.
Unity Arts Inc. Nine Pines Unity Arts is the central Bahá'í book
Publishing 26 Concourse Gate distribution service for Canada. They carry
Nepean, Ont. K2E-7T7 Phone from both a full selection of Bahá'í material and
both US and Canada: (800) as well certain non-Bahá'í items such as
465-3287, or (613) 727-6200 Fax: children's books. They and their Nine Pines
613- 727-3704 Email: division also publish original books and
Unityarts@aol.com manufacture audio-visual and special
materials.
University Microfilms International UMI has copies of most master's theses and
300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor Michigan doctoral dissertations done in North America
48106 Phone: (313) 761-4700 or and many foreign ones as well. Almost all
(800) 521-0600 unpublished theses listed in this guide can
be purchased from them. Average cost is
around US$30-50.
Whitcomb Publishing, Inc 32 Whitcomb Publishing produces both Bahá'í and
Hampden Street Springfield, MA non-Bahá'í books designed to help apply
01103 Phone: (800) 354-1789 or Bahá'í principles to contemporary world
(413) 737-9630 Email: issues. Their latest series of works is on
paulrobbin@aol.com Bahá'í solutions to the problem of racism.
White Cloud Press P.O. Box 3400 White Cloud Press has published books of
Ashland, OR 97520 Phone/fax: interest to Bahá'í scholars but not directly
(541) 488-6415 Email: on the Faith, including works of Háfiz and
sscholl@jeffnet.org Webpage: T. Izutsu; J. Cole's and J. Walbridge's
www.jeffnet.org/whitecloud translations of K. Gibran; anthologies of
essays on religion and mysticism; and Wisdom
of the Master, a new compilation of the
writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá, forthcoming.
White Mountain Publications
Box 5180, R. R. #2 New Box 1178 White Mountain Publications carries both
New Liskeard, Ontario P0J-1P0 Canada deepening and teaching materials, such as
Phone, toll-free from within Canada only: study guides, compilations, and some
(800) 258-5451, or from elsewhere: historical material, and organizational
(705) 647-5424 Fax: (705) 647-8366 aids, such as planning calendars.
Chapter 4
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ALL WORKS CITED
The following bibliography is alphabetical and represents the long form of
citation for all the works cited in this Resource Guide. The
bibliography is certainly not exhaustive; rather, it represents a selection of
works on the Bahá'í Faith that are of particular scholarly
interest.
The most complete bibliography is William P. Collins, A Bibliography of
English-Language Works on the Bábí and Bahá'í
Faiths, 1844-1985 (Oxford: George Ronald, 1990), which contains references
to at least 1,390 works of Bahá'í scripture; over 2,814 works
about the Bábí and Bahá'í religions; 142 Braille
works; over 1,645 references to the Bahá'í Faith in works on
other subjects; over 1,128 periodical articles about the Bahá'í
Faith; and 73 theses about the religion. Peter Smith has also included a good,
though now dated, annotated bibliography of primary texts and secondary
scholarship in his Bábí and Bahá'í Religions:
From messianic Shí'ism to a world religion,
225-38. Of final mention is Joel Bjorling's Bahá'í Faith: A
Historical Bibliography (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc, 1985), which is
useful in that its non-Bahá'í but sympathetic commentary lends it
perspectives of occasional interest. Its bibliographic usefulness is minimal,
though, for Collin's work is more comprehensive.
Abdo, Lil. "Female Representations of the Holy Spirit." Bahá'í
Studies Review, 4.1 (1994): 27-36.
'Abdu'l-Bahá. 'Abdu'l-Bahá in London: Addresses and Notes of
Conversations. London: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1987.
------. "'Abdu'l-Bahá on Christ and Christianity." Introduction by Seena
Fazel. The Bahá'í Studies Review, 3.1 (1993): 1-18.
------. "Commentary on the Islamic Tradition: 'I Was a Hidden Treasure.'"
Trans. Moojan Momen. Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 3.4 (Dec.
1985): 4-64.
------. Paris Talks: Addresses given by 'Abdu'l-Bahá in Paris in
1911-1912. 11th ed. London: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1969.
------. The Promulgation of Universal Peace: Talks Delivered by
'Abdu'l-Bahá during His Visit to the United States and Canada in 1912.
Compiled by Howard MacNutt. 2d ed. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust, 1982.
------. Secret of Divine Civilization. Translated by Marzieh Gail. 3d
ed. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1975.
------. Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá. Compiled by
the Research Department of the Universal House of Justice. Translated by the
Bahá'í World Centre. Haifa: Bahá'í World Centre,
1978.
------. Some Answered Questions. Compiled and translated by Laura
Clifford Barney. 5th ed. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust,
1981.
------. Tablets of the Divine Plan. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust, 1977.
[------.] A Traveller's Narrative Written to Illustrate the Episode of the
Báb. Translated by Edward G. Browne. 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge
Univ. Press, 1891. Reprinted by Wilmette: Bahá'í Publishing
Trust, 1980.
------. Will and Testament of 'Abdu'l-Bahá. Translated by Shoghi
Effendi. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1944.
'Abdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi. "Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union: A
Compilation of Bahá'í Writings." Comp. the Universal House of
Justice. Bahá'í Studies Review, 3.1 (1993): 97-117.
------. "Europe: A Compilation from the Bahá'í Writings." Comp.
the Universal House of Justice. Bahá'í Studies Review, 1.1
(1991): 40-53.
------. "A Compilation of Bahá'í Writings on Germany, France,
Italy, and Switzerland." Comp. the Universal House of Justice.
Bahá'í Studies Review, 4.1 (1994): 105-128.
'Abdu'l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi, and the Universal House of Justice.
Importance of Teaching Indigenous People. Comp. the Universal House of
Justice. Toronto: The National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís
of Canada, 1968.
Abizadeh, Arash. "Because Bahá'u'lláh Said So: dealing with a
non-starter in moral reasoning." Bahá'í Studies Review,
5:1 (1995): 83-87.
------. "Commentary on 'On Human Origins: A Bahá'í Perspective.'"
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 3.1 (1990-1991): 67-73.
------. "Liberal Democracy and the Bahá'í Administrative Order."
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 2.3 (1990): 1-13.
Abu'l-Fadl Golpáygání, Mírzá.
Bahá'í Proofs. Translated by Ali-Kuli Khan. 3d ed.
Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1983.
------. Miracles and Metaphors. Translated by Juan Ricardo Cole. Los
Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1981.
------. Letters and Essays 1886-1913. Translated by Juan R. I. Cole. Los
Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1985.
------. "Why Moses Could not See God." In Letters and Essays 1886-1913.
Trans. Juan R. I. Cole. Los Angeles: Kalimát, 1985.
Afnan, Elham. "'Abdu'l-Bahá and Ezra Pound's Circle." Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 6.2 (June-Sept. 1994): 1-14.
------. "The Good of the World and the Happiness of the Nations: A Study of
Modern Utopian and Dystopian Literature." Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 1.4 (1988-1989): 1-20.
Afnán, Muhammad, and William S. Hatcher. "Western Islamic Scholarship
and Bahá'í Origins." Religion, 15 (1985): 29-51.
Afnan, Ruhi. Baha'u'llah and the Bab Confront Modern Thinkers: Book
II: Spinoza: Concerning God. New York: Philosophical Library,
1977.
------. Mysticism and the Bahá'í Revelation: A
Contrast. New York: Bahá'í Publishing Committee, 1934.
------. The Revelation of Baha'u'llah and the Bab: Book I: Descartes' Theory
of Knowledge. New York: Philosophical Library, 1970.
Ahdieh, Hussein and Eliane A. Hopson. 'Abdu'l-Bahá in New York: The
City of the Covenant. New York: The Spiritual Assembly of the
Bahá'ís of the City of New York, 1987.
Ahlstrom, Sydney E. A Religious History of the American People. Garden
City, N.Y.: Image Books, 1975.
Aidun, Gol. "Manekji Limji Hataria and the Bahá'í Faith."
Bahá'í Studies Notebook, 1.1 (December 1980): 47-62.
'Ala'i, Sitarih and Colleen Dawes, eds. Role of Women in an Advancing
Civilization. Australia: Bahá'í Publications Australia,
1989.
Amanat, Abbas. Resurrection and Renewal. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ.
Press, 1989.
Anderson, Angela. Valley of Search: A Personal Quest for Truth. Oxford:
One World, 1990.
Armstrong-Ingram, R. Jackson. Music, Devotions, and
Mashriqu'l-Adhkár: Studies in
Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume 4. Los Angeles:
Kalimát Press, 1987.
------. "Politics, Text, and Context." dialogue, 1:3 (Summer/Fall 1986):
20-23.
Association for Bahá'í Studies. The Bahá'í Faith
and Marxism: Proceedings of a Conference, January 1986. Ottawa:
Bahá'í Studies Publications, 1987.
Atkinson, Anne Gordon, et al. Green Acre on the Piscataqua. Eliot,
Maine: Green Acre Bahá'í School Council, 1991.
------. "Women in Art." Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 4.2
(June-Sept. 1991): 1-10.
Aull, Brian. "The Faith of Science and the Method of Religion." Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 1.2 (1988): 1-17.
------. "The Process of Social Change." World Order, 23.3 (Spring/Summer
1989): 9-18.
Ayman, Iraj, ed. A New Framework for Moral Education. Wienacht,
Switzerland: Landegg Academy, 1993.
Báb, The. A Compilation of Passages from the Writings of the
Báb. Comp. the Universal House of Justice. New Delhi:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1980.
------. Selections from the Writings of the Báb. Haifa:
Bahá'í World Centre, 1976.
Bach, Marcus. A Meeting with Shoghi Effendi. Oxford: OneWorld, 1993.
Backwell, Richard. The Christianity of Jesus. Peterhead, Scotland:
Volturna Press, 1972.
Badiee, Julie. "Mark Tobey's City Paintings: Meditations on an Age of
Transition." Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 1.4 (1988-1989):
21-39
Badiee, Julie Oeming and Heshmatollah Badiee. "The Calligraphy of
Mishkín-Qalam." Journal of Bahá'í Studies,
3.4 (Dec. 1990-Mar. 1991): 1-22.
"Bahá'í Archives: Preserving and Safeguarding the Sacred Texts."
'Andalíb magazine, 12.48 (Fall 1993): insert.
Bahá'í Canada Publications. 'Abdu'l-Bahá in Canada:
revised edition. Thornhill, Ontario, 1987v
Bahá'í Community of Canada. "A Bahá'í Perspective
on Issues of Concern to the World's Aboriginal Peoples." The
Bahá'í World: An International Record, 1993-94. Haifa:
Bahá'í World Centre, 1994.
Bahá'í International Community. The Bahá'í
Question: Iran's Secret Blueprint for the Destruction of a Religious
Community. New York, N.Y.: Bahá'í International Community
Publications. 1993.
------. The Bahá'ís in Iran: A report on the Persecution of a
Religious Minority. New York: Bahá'í International Community,
1982.
------. Freedom of Religion on Trial in Morocco: The Nador Case. N.p.,
1963.
------. Turning Point for All Nations. United Nations Office, 1995. Reprinted
in World Order, 27.2 (Winter 1995-96): 7-32.
"The Bahá'í National Center: part one: Forty-Nine Years, a
personal perspective." Deepen 10.4.1 (1996): 12-19.
------. "The Bahá'í National Center: part two: The Establishment
of the Bahá'í Faith in America." Deepen 11.4.2 (1996):
20-29.
Bahá'u'lláh. Epistle to the Son of the Wolf. Translated by
Shoghi Effendi. Rev. ed. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust,
1976.
------. Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh.
Translated by Shoghi Effendi. 2d ed. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust, 1976.
------. The Hidden Words. Translated by Shoghi Effendi. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1939.
------. Kitáb-i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book. Haifa:
Bahá'í World Centre, 1992.
------. Kitáb-i-Íqán. 2d ed. Translated by Shoghi
Effendi. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1950.
------. Prayers and Meditations. Translated by Shoghi Effendi. Wilmette,
Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1938.
------. The Proclamation of Bahá'u'lláh. Haifa:
Bahá'í World Centre, 1972.
------. The Seven Valleys and the Four Valleys. Translated by Marzieh
Gail and Ali-Kuli Khan. 3d ed. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing
Trust, 1973.
------. A Synopsis and Codification of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, the Most
Holy Book of Bahá'u'lláh. Haifa: Bahá'í World
Centre, 1973.
------. "Tablet to the Physician." Trans. Stephen Lambden and Khazeh
Fananapazir. Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 6:4-7:2 (October
1992): 18-65.
------. Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh revealed after the
Kitáb-i-Aqdas. Translated by Habib Taherzadeh. Haifa:
Bahá'í World Centre, 1978.
------. Writings of Bahá'u'lláh: A Compilation. New Delhi:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1986.
Bahá'u'lláh, 'Abdu'l-Bahá, and Shoghi Effendi.
Bahá'í Education: A Compilation. Extracts from the Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh, 'Abdu'l-Bahá, and Shoghi Effendi.
Compiled by the Research Department of the Universal House of Justice.
Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1977.
------. Extracts from the Bahá'í Writings on Buddha, Krishna,
Zoroaster, and Related Subjects. In Compilation of Compilations,
vol. I. Victoria, Australia: Bahá'í Publications Australia,
1991.
------. Bahá'í Marriage and Family Life: Selections from the
Writings of the Bahá'í Faith. Compiled by the Research
Department of the Universal House of Justice. Thornhill, Ont.:
Bahá'í Canada Publications, 1983.
------. Divorce: A Compilation of Extracts from the Bahá'í
Teachings Discouraging Divorce. London: Bahá'í Publishing
Trust, 1986.
------. Bahá'í Meetings. The Nineteen Day Feast. Extracts from
the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 'Abdu'l-Bahá, and Shoghi
Effendi. Compiled by the Research Department of the Universal House of
Justice. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1976.
------. The Individual and Teaching: Raising the Divine Call. Extracts from
the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 'Abdu'l-Bahá, and Shoghi
Effendi. Compiled by the Research Department of the Universal House of
Justice. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1977.
------. Spiritual Foundations: Prayer, Meditation, and the Devotional
Attitude. Extracts from the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh,
'Abdu'l-Bahá, and Shoghi Effendi. Compiled by the Research
Department of the Universal House of Justice. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1980.
Bahá'u'lláh, 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi, and The
Universal House of Justice. Bahá'í Scholarship: A Compilation
form the Bahá'í Writings. Compiled by Peter Khan.
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin 2:1 (June 1983), 63-72, reprinted
in Bahá'í Studies Review 3:2 (1994), 15-27.
------. Consultation: A Compilation. Extracts from the Writings and
Utterances of Bahá'u'lláh, 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi,
and The Universal House of Justice. Compiled by the Research Department of
the Universal House of Justice. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing
Trust 1980.
------. "The Islands of the North Sea." Bahá'í Studies
Review, 6 (1996): 141-152.
------. "The Islands of the Pacific." Bahá'í Studies
Review, 6 (1996): 153-165.
------. Lights of Guidance: A Bahá'í Reference File, 2d
revised and enlarged edition. Comp. Helen Hornby. New Delhi:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1988.
------. Scholarship: A Compilation. Wilmette: Institute for
Bahá'í Studies, 1995. Reprinted as Scholarship by
Bahá'í Publications Australia, 1995.
------. Spiritualism, Psychic Phenomena and Related Subjects. Universal
House of Justice, 1973.
------. Women: Extracts from the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh,
'Abdu'l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi, and the Universal House of Justice.
Compiled by the Research Department of the Universal House of Justice.
Thornhill, Ont.: Bahá'í Canada Publications, 1986.
Bahá'u'lláh, The Báb, and 'Abdu'l-Bahá.
Bahá'í Prayers. 2d ed. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1982.
Bahá'u'lláh, The Báb, 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi,
and The Universal House of Justice. Bahá'u'lláh's Teachings on
Spiritual Reality. Compiled by Paul Lemple. Riviera Beach, Florida: Palabra
Publications, 1996.
------. Family Life. Compiled by the Research Department of the
Universal House of Justice. New Delhi: Bahá'í Publishing Trust,
1982.
------. The True Foundation of all Economics. Compiled by Hooshmand
Badi'i. Kitchener, Ontario: Allprint-Ainsworth Associates Inc., 1993.
Bahá'u'lláh, 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi, and the
Universal House of Justice. Social and Economic Development: Extracts from
the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, The Writings and Utterances of
'Abdu'l-Bahá, The Letters of Shoghi Effendi and Letters written on his
behalf, The Letters and Messages of the Universal House of Justice and Letters
written on its behalf. Compiled by the Office of Social and Economic
Development, Bahá'í World Centre. Sydney: Bahá'í
Publications Australia, 1988.
------. Unrestrained as the Wind. Wilmette: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust, 1985.
Balch, Robert, Glen Farnsworth, and Sue Wilkins. "When the Bombs Drop:
Reactions to Prophecy in a Millenial Sect." Journal for the Scientific Study
of Religion 6:2 (1967), 221-235.
Balyuzi, Hasan M. 'Abdu'l-Bahá: Centre of the Covenant of
Bahá'u'lláh. Oxford: George Ronald, 1971.
------. The Báb: The Herald of the Day of Days. Oxford: George
Ronald, 1973.
------. Bahá'u'lláh: The King of Glory. Oxford: George
Ronald, 1980.
------. Edward Granville Browne and the Bahá'í Faith.
Oxford: George Ronald, 1970.
------. Eminent Bahá'ís in the Time of
Bahá'u'lláh. Oxford: George Ronald, 1985.
------. Muhammad and the Course of Islam. Oxford: George Ronald, 1976.
Banani, Amin. "Three Accounts of Love Sacrificed." World Order, 17.1
(Fall 1982): 9-35.
Barker, Patrick. Created Rich: How Spiritual Attitudes and Material Means
Work Together to Achieve Prosperity. Happy Camp, CA: Naturegraph
Publishers, Inc., 1995.
Barnes, William. "Forging More Perfect Unions." Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 5.1 (1992): 1-11.
Bartholomew, G. A. "Harmony of Science and Religion: A Complementarity
Perspective." Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 1.3 (1989):
1-14.
Bartlett, Edward E. "'Abdu'l-Bahá in Chicago: An Account of the Master's
Four Visits to the Windy City 65 Years Ago." Bahá'í News,
558 (September 1977): 2-8.
Bausani, Alessandro. "The Religious Crisis of the Modern World." World
Order, 2.3 (Spring 1968): 9-15.
Bayat, Mangol. Mysticism and Dissent: socioreligious thought in Qajar
Iran. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1982.
Behold Me: Bahá'í Writings on Unity. London:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1995.
Berger, Peter. From Sect to Church: a Sociological Interpretation of the
Bahá'í Movement. Ph. D. diss., New School of Social Research,
1954.
Bethel, Fereshteh Taheri. "A Psychological Theory of Martyrdom." World
Order, 20.2/3 (Spring/Summer 1986): 5-25.
------. A Psychological Theory of Martyrdom: A content analysis of personal
documents of Bahá'í martyrs of Iran written between 1979 and
1982. Ph.D. diss., United States International University, 1984.
Beveridge, Kent. "From Adrianople to 'Akká: The Australian Lloyd."
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 4.1 (Mar. 1986): 8-32.
Bjorling, Joel. Bahá'í Faith: A Historical Bibliography.
New York: Garland Publishing, Inc, 1985.
Blumenthal, Erik. The Way to Inner Freedom: A Practical Guide for Personal
Development. Oxford: George Ronald, 1988.
Boyles, Ann. "The Language of the Heart: Arts in the Bahá'í World
Community." Bahá'í World: An International Record,
1994-95. Haifa: Bahá'í World Centre, 1996.
------. "Towards the Goal of Full Partnership: One Hundred and Fifty Years of
the Advancement of Women." The Bahá'í World: An International
Record, 1993-94. Haifa: Bahá'í World Centre, 1994: 237-75.
Bramson-Lerche, Loni. "An Analysis of the Bahá'í World Order
Model." In Charles Lerche, ed., Emergence: Dimensions of a New World Order.
London: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1991, 1-70.
------. "The Bahá'í Faith in Nigeria." Dialogue and
Alliance, 1992.
------. "Some Aspects of the Development of the Bahá'í
Administrative Order in America, 1922-1936." In Moojan Momen, Studies in
Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume 1. Los Angeles:
Kalimát Press, 1982.
------. "Some Aspects of the Establishment of the Guardianship." In Moojan
Momen, ed., Studies in Honor of the Late Hasan M. Balyuzi: Studies in the
Bábí and Bahá'í Religions, volume 5. Los
Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1988.
Braun, Eunice. The March of the Institutions: A Commentary on the
Interdependence of Rulers and Learned. Oxford: George Ronald, 1984.
------. From Strength to Strength: The First Half Century of the Formative
Age of the Bahá'í Era. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust, 1978.
Braun, Eunice, and Hugh Chance. A Crown of Beauty: The Bahá'í
Faith and the Holy Land. Oxford: George Ronald, 1982.
Breneman, Anne Rowley. "Social and Economic Development Toward World Peace."
World Order, 19.3/4 (Spring/Summer 1985): 23-37.
Breneman, Bret. "Socrates'/Plato's Use of Rhetoric: A Bahá'í
Perspective." Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 4.1 (Mar.-June
1991): 1-18.
Brill, Susan. "Response to Iraj Aryman, 'Commentary on Craig Loehle, "On Human
Origins: A Bahá'í Perspective." Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 4:2 (Sept.-Dec. 1991): 63-69.
------. "Conversive Relationality in Bahá'í Scholarship:
Centering the Sacred and Decentering the Self." Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 7:2 (June-September 1995): 1-28.
Browne, Edward Granville, comp. Materials for the Study of the
Bábí Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1918.
------. Selections from the Writings of E. G. Browne on the
Bábí and Bahá'í Religions. Compiled and edited
by Moojan Momen. Oxford: George Ronald, 1987.
------. A Year Amongst the Persians. Impressions as to the Life, Character
& Thought of the People of Persia. London: Century Publishing, 1984.
Brown, Keven. "A Bahá'í Perspective on the Origin of Matter."
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 2.3 (1989-1990): 15-44.
Bryson, Alan. Light After Death: A comparison of the Near-Death-Experience
and the teachings of the Bahá'í Faith on life after death.
New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited, 1993.
Buck, Christopher. "Bahá'u'lláh as 'World-Reformer.'" Journal
of Bahá'í Studies, 3.4 (Dec. 1990-Mar. 1991): 23-70.
------. "Native Messengers of God in Canada? A test case for
Bahá'í universalism." Bahá'í Studies Review,
6 (1996): 97-133.
------. Paradise and Paradigm: Key Symbols in "Persian" Christianity and the
Bahá'í Faith. Ph.D. diss., University of Toronto, 1996.
------. "Review of Denis MacEoin's Rituals in Babism and Baha'ism."
International Journal of Middle East Studies, 28.3 (1996): 418-422.
------. Symbol and Secret: Qur'an Commentary in Bahá'u'lláh's
Kitáb-i-Íqán: Studies in the Bábí and
Bahá'í Religions, volume 7. Los Angeles: Kalimát
Press, 1995.
------. "A Unique Eschatological Interface: Bahá'u'lláh and
Cross-Cultural Messianism." In Peter Smith, In Iran: Studies in
Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume 3. Los Angeles:
Kalimát Press, 1986.
------. "The Identity of the Sabi'un: An Historical Quest." The Muslim World
74 (July-Oct. 1984): 172-186.
Bushrui, Suheil. The Style of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas. Bethesda, MD:
University Press of Maryland, 1995.
Caton, Margaret L. "Bahá'í Influences on Mírzá
'Abdu'lláh, Qájár Court Musician and Master of the
Radíf." In Juan R. Cole and Moojan Momen, From Iran East and
West, Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í History,
volume 2.
Caton, Peggy, ed. Equal Circles: Women and Men in the Bahá'í
Community. Los Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1987.
Chase, Thornton. "Impressions of 'Abdu'l-Bahá and His Station."
Introduction by Robert Stockman. World Order, 25.1 (Fall 1993): 13-23.
------. In Galilee. Los Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1985.
Chew, Phyllis Ghim Lian. The Chinese Religion and the Bahá'í
Faith. Oxford: George Ronald, 1993.
------. "The Great Tao." Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 4.2
(June-Sept. 1991): 11-39.
Chouleur, Jacques. "The Bahá'í Faith: World Religion of the
Future?" World Order, 12.1 (Fall 1977): 9-18.
Cole, Juan R. "Abu'l-Fadl Gulpáygání on Revelation and
History." World Order, 16.2 (Winter 1982): 35-42.
------. "The Bahá'ís of Iran." History Today, 40 (1990):
24-29.
------. "Bahá'u'lláh and the Naqshbandí Sufis in
Iraq, 1854-1856." Juan Cole and Moojan Momen, From Iran East and West:
Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume 2.
------. "The Concept of the Manifestation in the Bahá'í
Writings." Bahá'í Studies, no. 9 (1982).
------. "The Christian-Muslim Encounter and the Bahá'í Faith."
World Order, 12.2 (Winter 1977-78): 14-28.
------. "A Dialogue on the Bahá'í Faith." World Order,
15.3/4 (Spring/Summer 1981): 7-16.
------. "'`I am All the Prophets': The Poetics of Pluralism in Baha'i Texts."
Poetics Today 14:3 (Fall 1993): 123-141.
------. "Interpretation in the Bahá'í Faith."
Bahá'í Studies Review, 5:1 (1995): 1-11.
------. "Iranian Millenarianism and Democratic Thought in the 19th Century."
The International Journal of Middle East Studies, 24.1 (1992): 1-26.
------. "Problems of Chronology in Bahá'u'lláh's Tablet of
Wisdom." World Order, 13.3 (Spring 1979): 24-39.
Cole, Juan and Moojan Momen, From Iran East and West: Studies in
Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume 2. Los Angeles:
Kalimát Press, 1984.
Coleman, John J. "Protecting Humanity and Its Environment: A
Bahá'í Perspective." World Order, 26.2 (Winter 1994-95):
15-29.
Collins, William P. "The Bahá'í Faith and Mormonism." World
Order, 15.1/2 (Fall 1980/Winter 1981): 33-45.
------. "The Bahá'í Faith and Mormonism: Further Reflections."
World Order, 17.3 (Spring 1983): 25-33.
------. Bibliography of English-Language Works on the Bábí and
Bahá'í Faiths 1844-1985. Oxford: George Ronald, 1990.
------. "Islam's Tahríf: Implications for the Bahá'í
Faith." World Order, 11.1 (Fall 1976): 22-31.
------. "Kenosha, 1893-1912: History of an Early Bahá'í Community
in the United States." In Moojan Momen, Studies in Bábí and
Bahá'í History, volume 1. Los Angeles: Kalimát Press,
1982.
------. "Library and Archival Resources at the Bahá'í World
Centre." Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 3.4 (Dec. 1985):
65-83.
------. "Research Note: Mormonism and the Bahá'í Faith."
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 3.2 (1990-1991): 75-62.
------. "Sacred Mythology and the Bahá'í Faith." Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 2.4 (1990): 1-15.
Collins, William P., and Jan T. Jasion, "Lev Tolstoy and the Bábí
and Bahá'í Religions: A Bibliography." Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 3.3 (1990-1991): 1-9.
Committee on Foreign Affairs. Religious Persecution as a Violation of Human
Rights: Hearings and Markup before the Committee on Foreign Affairs and its
Subcommittee on Human Rights and International Orgianizations. Washington:
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983.
Conner, Daniel K. "Buddhism and the Bahá'í Faith." World
Order, 6.2 (Winter 1971-72): 25-33.
------. "Mani and Manichaeism: A Study in Religious Failure." World
Order, 11.2 (Winter 1976-77): 36-45.
Conow, B. Hoff. The Bahá'í Teachings: A Resurgent Model of the
Universe. Oxford: George Ronald, 1990.
Conrader, Constance. "Women: Attaining their Birthright." World Order,
6.4 (Summer 1972): 43-59.
Cooper, Roger. The Bahá'ís of Iran. Minority Rights Group
Report no. 51. London: Minority Rights Group Ltd., 1985.
Coy, Genevieve. Counsels of Perfection: A Bahá'í Guide to
Mature Living. Oxford: George Ronald, 1978.
Dahl, Arthur L. Mark Tobey: Art and Belief. Oxford: George Ronald,
1984.
------. Unless and Until: A Bahá'í Focus on the Environment.
London: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1990.
------. "The World Order of Nature." In Charles Lerche, ed., Emergence:
Dimensions of a New World Order. London: Bahá'í Publishing
Trust, 1991, 161-74.
Dahl, Gregory C. "Economics and the Bahá'í Teachings: An
Overview." World Order, 10.1 (Fall 1975): 19-29.
------. "Evolving toward a Bahá'í Economic System." Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 4.3 (Sept.-Dec. 1991): 1-15.
------. "Indian Bahá'ís of Bolivia." World Order, 4.1
(Fall 1969): 41-46.
------. "Towards an Ever-Advancing Civilization." Bahá'í
Studies Notebook 3.3/4 (1984): 39-52.
------. "Values, Culture, and Development." World Order, 19.3/4
(Spring/Summer 1985): 11-20.
Dahl, Roger M. "Three Teaching Methods Used During North America's First
Seven-Year Plan." Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 5.3
(Sept.-Dec. 1993): 1-15.
Danesh, Helen, et al. "The Life of Shoghi Effendi." In Morten Bergsmo, ed.,
Studying the Writings of Shoghi Effendi. Oxford: George Ronald, 1991.
Danesh, Hossain B. "Health and Healing." World Order, 13.3 (Spring
1979): 15-23.
------. The Psychology of Spirituality. Victoria: Paradigm Publishing,
1994.
------. Unity: The Creative Foundation of Peace. Ottawa:
Bahá'í Studies Publications, 1986.
------. "The Violence-Free Society: A Gift for Our Children."
Bahá'í Studies, vol. 6 (1979).
Danesh, Hossain B., and William S. Hatcher. "Errors in Jensen's Analysis."
World Order, 11.1 (Fall 1976): 52-60.
Danesh, John N. "Four Peace Messages, 1983-85: A Comparison." World
Order, 24.1 (Fall 1989/Winter 1989-90): 7-19.
Davidson, John, and Marjorie Tidman, eds. Cooperative Peace Strategies.
Mona Vale, New South Wales: Bahá'í Publications Australia,
1992.
Developing Distinctive Bahá'í Communities. Comp. National
Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States. Wilmette,
Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1989.
Diessner, Rhett. "Selflessness: Congruences Between the Cognitive-Developmental
Research Program and the Bahá'í Writings."
Bahá'í Studies Journal, 3.2 (1990-1991): 1-13.
The Divine Institution of Marriage. Bahá'í Studies Notebook.
3.1-2. Ottawa: Association for Bahá'í Studies, 1983.
Drewek, Paula A. "Feminine Forms of the Divine in Bahá'í
Scripture." Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 5.1 (Mar.-June
1992): 13-23.
Earl, David M. "The Mystery of the Manifestation." World Order, 23.3
(Spring/Summer 1989): 21-30.
Enáyat, Mohsen. "A Commentary on the Azhar's Statement Regarding
'Bahá'ís and Bahá'ism.'" Bahá'í Studies
Review, 2.1 (1992): 51-61.
Erickson, David L. "Commentary on 'The Purpose of Poetry.'" Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 2.1 (1989-1990): 73-6.
Esslemont, John E. Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era. 5th ed.
Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1980.
Eyford, Glen A. "Aesthetics and Spiritual Education." World Order, 14.1
(Fall, 1979): 32-49.
Faizi, Abu'l-Qásim. Stories from the Delight of Hearts: The Memoirs
of Hájí Mírzá Haydar-'Alí. Los Angeles:
Kalimát Press, 1980.
Faizi, Gloria. The Bahá'í Faith. Rev. ed. New Delhi:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1986.
------. Stories about Bahá'í Funds. New Delhi:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1993.
Fananapazir, Khazeh, and Seena Fazel. "The Station of the
Kitáb-i-Íqán." The Bahá'í Studies
Review, 3.1 (1993): 55-66.
Fazel, Seena. "The Bahá'í Faith and Academic Journals."
Bahá'í Studies Review, 3.2 (1994): 81-90.
------. "The Bahá'í Faith Seen Through the Eyes of Major
Encyclopedias." Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 4:3 (Sept-Dec
1991): 55-59.
------. "The First Western Language Encyclopedia Article on the
Bábí Religion." Bahá'í Studies Bulletin,
5.3-6.1 (June 1991): 121-34.
------. "Inheritance." Bahá'í Studies Review, 4.1 (1994):
71-5.
------. "Interreligious Dialogue and the Bahá'í Faith: Some
Preliminary Observations." In Jack McLean, ed. Revisioning the Sacred: New
Perspectives on a Bahá'í Theology: Studies in the
Bábí and Bahá'í Religions, volume 8. Los
Angelse: Kalimat Press, 1997.
------. "Is the Bahá'í Faith a World Religion?" Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 6.1 (Mar.-June 1994): 1-16.
------. "Some Observations Regarding Bibliographic Citations in
Non-Bahá'í Periodicals and the Academic Study of the
Bahá'í Faith." Bahá'í Studies Bulletin,
6.2-3 (Feb. 1992): 86-98.
Fazel, Seena, and Khazeh Fananapazir. "A Bahá'í Approach to the
Claim of Exclusivity and Uniqueness in Christianity." Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 3.2 (1990-1991): 15-24.
------. "A Bahá'í Approach to the Claim of Finality in Islam."
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 5.3 (Sept.-Dec. 1993): 17-40.
------. "Some Interpretive Principles in the Bahá'í Writings."
Bahá'í Studies Review, 2.1 (1992): 4-10.
Ferraby, John. All Things Made New: A Comprehensive Outline of the
Bahá'í Faith. Rev. ed. London: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust, 1975.
Finch, Trevor R. J. "Unclipping the Wings: A Survey of Secondary Literature in
English on Bahá'í Perspectives on Women." Bahá'í
Studies Review, 4.1 (1994): 9-26.
Fischel, Walter. "The Bahá'í Movement and Persian Jewry." The
Jewish Review. March 1934: 47-55.
------. "The Jews of Persia." Jewish Social Studies, 12 (1950).
Fischer, Michael M.J. "Social Change and the Mirrors of Tradition: The
Bahá'ís of Yazd." In Heshmat Moayyad, ed. The
Bahá'í Faith and Islam: Proceedings of Symposium, McGill
University, March 1984. Ottawa: Bahá'í Studies Publications,
1990.
------. Zoroastrian Iran Between Myth and Praxis. Ph.D. diss.,
University of Chicago, 1973.
Fischer, Michael M.J. and Mehdi Abedi. Debating Muslims: Cultural Dialogues
in Postmodernity and Tradition. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press,
1990.
Fish, Mary. "The Spiritual Dimension of Social Development." World
Order, 24.1 (Fall 1989/winter 1989-90): 23-35.
Fitzgerald, Michael, ed., The Creative Circle: Art, Literature, and Music in
Bahá'í Perspective. Los Angeles: Kalimát Press,
1989.
A Fortress for Well-Being: Bahá'í Teachings on Marriage.
Comp. National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the
United States. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1974.
Foundations for a Spiritual Education. Prepared by the National
Bahá'í Education Task Force. Wilmette: National Spiritual
Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States, 1995.
Fozdar, Jamshed K. Buddha Maitrya-Amitabha Has Appeared, second revised
edition. New Delhi: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1995.
------. The Fallacy of Ancestor Worship. S. R. Daruwala at Mazda
Printers. Bombay, 1965.
------. The God of Buddha. New York: Asia Publishing House, 1995.
Freeman, Dorothy. From Copper to Gold: The Life of Dorothy Baker.
Oxford: George Ronald, 1984.
Friedman, Yohanan. Prophecy Continuous: Aspects of Ahmadí Religious
Thought and Its Medieval Background. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1989.
Gail, Marzieh. Summon Up Remembrance. Oxford: George Ronald, 1987.
Gardner, Martin. "Farrakhan, Cabala, Baha'i and 19." Skeptical Inquirer,
21:2 (March/April 1997).
Garlington, William. "Bahá'í Bhajans." World Order, 16.2
(Winter 1982): 43-49.
------. The Bahá'í Faith in Malwa: A Study of a Contemporary
Religious Movement. Ph.D. diss., Australian National University, 1975.
Abridged as "Bahá'í Conversions in Malwa, Central India." In
Moojan Momen, From Iran East and West: Studies in Bábí and
Bahá'í History, volume 2. Los Angeles: Kalimát Press,
1984.
Garvin, Alexander. "We Can Solve Urban Problems." World Order, 17.2
(Winter 1982-83): 31-42.
Ghadirian, A. M. "Count Leo Tolstoy and his Appreciation of the
Bahá'í Faith." In The Bahá'í Faith in Russia:
Two Early Instances. Bahá'í Studies, vol. 5 (1979).
------. "Psychological and Spiritual Dimensions of Persecution and Suffering."
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 6.3 (Sept.-Dec. 1994), 1-26.
Ghaznavi, Agnes. Sexuality, Relationships, and Spiritual Growth. Oxford:
George Ronald, 1995.
Giachery, Ugo. Shoghi Effendi: Recollections. Oxford: George Ronald,
1973.
Glist, Paul. "Principles of Freedom and Authority in American and
Bahá'í Philosophy." World Order, 16.2 (Winter 1982):
21-29.
Goodall, Helen S., and Ella Goodall Cooper. Daily Lessons Received at
'Akká, January 1908. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing
Trust, 1979.
Gouvion, Colette, and Philippe Jouvion. The Gardeners of God: An Encounter
with Five Million Bahá'ís. Translated by Judith
Logsdon-Dubois. Oxford: OneWorld, 1993.
Grundy, Julia M. Ten Days in the Light of 'Akká. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1979.
Hacker, Barbara. "Montessori and the Bahá'í Faith." Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 1.2 (1988-1989): 19-33.
Hainsworth, Philip. Bahá'í Focus on Human Rights. London:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1985.
------. Bahá'í Focus on Peace. London:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1986.
Hakim-Samandari, Christine. Les Bahá'ís: ou victoire sur la
violence. Paris: Editions Pierre-Marcel Favre, 1982.
------. "Victory Over Violence." World Order, 20.1 (Fall 1985): 9-29.
Hampson, Arthur. The Growth and Spread of the Bahá'í
Faith. Ph.D. diss., University of Hawaii, 1980.
Hanley, Paul. "Agriculture: A Fundamental Principle." Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 3.1 (1990-1991): 1-17.
Hanna, Nabil. Bible Proofs: A Fireside Aid for Teaching Christians. Los
Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1988.
Hanson, Holly E. "Bahá'í Development Strategies: A Meeting of
Social Ideologies." In Charles Lerche, ed., Emergence: Dimensions of a New
World Order. London: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1991, 145-60.
------. "On Morals and Material Things." World Order, 24.2/3 (Spring and
Summer 1990): 37-51.
------. "The Spiritual Framework of Development." World Order, 23.1/2
(Fall 1988 Winter 1988-89) 7-15.
Harmsen, Rick. "The Holy Grail of Objectivity." Deepen, 3.3 (Fall 1995):
15-21.
Hart, Kerry. "The Role of Music in the Advancement of Civilization." Journal
of Bahá'í Studies, 2.1 (1989-1990): 1-16.
Hassall, Graham. "The Bahá'í Faith in the Asia Pacific: issues
and prospects." Bahá'í Studies Review, 6 (1996): 1-10.
------. "The Bahá'í Faith in Australia, 1920-34: Some Notes on
John and Clara Hyde-Dunn." Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 2.1
(June 1983): 8-30.
------. "Bahá'í History in the Formative Age: The World Crusade,
1953-1963." Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 6.4 (Dec. 1994-Mar.
1995): 1-21.
------. "The Influences on Mark Tobey." Bahá'í Studies
Bulletin, 4.1 (Mar. 1986): 80-94.
------. "Notes on the Bábí and Bahá'í Religions in
Russia and its Territories." Journal of Bahá'í Studies,
5.3 (Sept.-Dec. 1993): 41-80.
------. "Pacific Bahá'í Communities, 1950-1964." In Donald H.
Rubinstein, ed., Pacific History: Papers from the 8th Pacific History
Association Conference. Mangilao, Guam: Univ. of Guam Press, 1992.
Hatcher, John S. The Arc of Ascent: The Purpose of Physical Reality II.
Oxford: George Ronald, 1994.
------. "The Doctrine of 'The Most Great Infallibility' in Relation to the
'Station of Distinction.'" In John Hatcher and William Hatcher, The Law of
Love Enshrined: Selected Essays. Oxford: George Ronald, 1996.
------. "The Equality of Women: The Bahá'í Principle of
Complementarity." Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 2.3
(1989-1990): 55-66. Reprinted as "Some Thoughts on Gender Distinction in the
Kitáb-i-Aqdas: The Bahá'í Principle of
Complementarity," In John Hatcher and William Hatcher, The Law of Love
Enshrined: Selected Essays. Oxford: George Ronald, 1996.
------. From the Auroral Darkness: The Life and Poetry of Robert Hayden.
Oxford: George Ronald, 1984.
------. "The Model of Penology in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas." In John
Hatcher and William Hatcher, The Law of Love Enshrined: Selected Essays.
Oxford: George Ronald, 1996.
------. The Ocean of His Words: A Reader's Guide to the Art of
Bahá'u'lláh. Wilmette: Bahá'í Publishing Trust,
1997.
------. The Purpose of Physical Reality: The Kingdom of Names. Wilmette,
Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1987.
------. "Racial Identity and the Patterns of Consolidation in the Poetry of
Robert Hayden." Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 3.2
(1990-1991): 35-46.
Hatcher, John and William Hatcher. The Law of Love Enshrined: Selected
Essays. Oxford: George Ronald, 1996.
Hatcher, William S. "An Analysis of The Dispensation of
Bahá'u'lláh." In The Vision of Shoghi Effendi: Proceedings
of the Association for Bahá'í Studies Ninth Annual
Conference. Ottawa: Association for Bahá'í Studies, 1993.
------. "The Concept of Spirituality." Bahá'í Studies,
vol. 11 (1982). Reprinted in The Bahá'í World: An
International Record, Volume XVIII. Haifa, Israel: Bahá'í
World Centre, 1986. 932-965. Reprinted in John Hatcher and William Hatcher.
The Law of Love Enshrined: Selected Essays. Oxford: George Ronald, 1996.
189-249.
------. "Economics and Moral Values." World Order, 9.2 (Winter 1974-75):
14-27.
------. "From Metaphysics and Logic." In Logic and Logos: Essays on Science,
Religion, and Philosophy. Oxford: George Ronald, 1990.
------. "The Kitáb-i-Aqdas: The Causality Principle in the World
of Being." The Bahá'í World: An International Record,
1993-94. Haifa: Bahá'í World Centre, 1994: 189-236.
------. Logic and Logos: Essays on Science, Religion and Philosophy.
Oxford: George Ronald, 1990.
------. "A Logical Solution to the Problem of Evil." In Logic and Logos:
Essays on Science, Religion, and Philosophy. Oxford: George Ronald, 1990.
------. "Myths, Models, and Mysticism." In Logic and Logos: Essays on
Science, Religion, and Philosophy. Oxford: George Ronald, 1990.
------. "The Science of Religion." Bahá'í Studies, no. 2.
Rev. ed., 1980.
------. "A Scientific Proof of the Existence of God." Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 5.4 (Dec. 1993-Mar. 1994): 1-16.
------. "Scholarship: A Bahá'í Perspective." Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 1.2 (1988-1989): 35-46.
Hatcher, William S., and J. Douglas Martin. The Bahá'í Faith:
The Emerging Global Religion. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1984.
Hayes, Terrill B. et al. Peace: More than an End to War. Selections from the
Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, The Báb, 'Abdu'l-Bahá,
Shoghi Effendi, and The Universal House of Justice. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1986.
Heggie, James. Bahá'í References to Judaism, Christianity, and
Islam. Oxford: George Ronald, 1986.
Hein, Kurt John. Radio Bahá'í Ecuador: A Bahá'í
Development Project. Oxford: George Ronald, 1988.
------. "Radio for Development." World Order, 19.3/4 (Spring/Summer
1985): 39-50.
Hellaby, Madeline. Education in the Bahá'í Family. Oxford:
George Ronald, 1987.
------. Prayer: A Bahá'í Approach. Oxford: George Ronald,
1985.
Heller, Wendy. Lidia: The Life of Lidia Zamenhof, Daughter of Esperanto.
Oxford: George Ronald, 1985.
Herrmann, Duane, comp. Fasting: The Sun and its Moons. A
Bahá'í Handbook. Oxford: George Ronald, 1989.
------. "Houses as Perfect as Possible." World Order, 26.1 (Fall 1994):
17-31.
Hick, John. "Interfaith and the Future." Bahá'í Studies
Review, 4.1 (1994): 1-8.
Hofman, David. George Townshend. Oxford: George Ronald, 1983.
------. "Shoghi Effendi, Expounder of the Word of God." In Morten Bergsmo, ed.,
Studying the Writings of Shoghi Effendi. Oxford: George Ronald, 1991.
Holley, Horace. "The Angel in the Garrison." Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 3.3 (1990-1991): 11-20. Reprinted from Star of the West,
vol. 8. Oxford: George Ronald, 1978. Reprinted from Star of the West,
14.1 & 2 (Feb.-Mar. 1924).
Hollinger, Richard, ed. Community Histories: Studies In the
Bábí and Bahá'í Religions, volume 6. Los
Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1992.
------. "Ibrahim George Kheiralla and the Bahá'í Faith in
America." In Juan Cole and Moojan Momen, From Iran East and West: Studies in
Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume 2. Los Angeles:
Kalimát Press, 1984.
------. "Some New Notes on Ibrahim Kheiralla." Bahá'í Studies
Bulletin, 2.3 (Dec. 1983): 3-67.
Hoonaard, Will C. van den. "The Bahá'í Community of Canada: A
Case Study in the Transplantation of Non-Western Religious Movements to Western
Societies." Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 7:3 (March-June
1997): 17-41.
------. "Canada's Earliest Bahá'í History." World Order,
22.1/2 (Fall 1987 Winter 1987-88): 39-49.
------. "The Persecution of the Iranian Bahá'í Community and the
Emergence of a Universal Moral Order." World Order, 19.1/2 (Fall
1984/Winter 1984-85): 51-57.
------. The Origins of the Bahá'í Faith in Canada,
1898-1948. Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfred Laurier University Press, 1996.
Hornby, Helen, comp. Lights of Guidance: A Bahá'í Reference
File, 2d revised and enlarged ed. New Delhi: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust, 1988.
Huddleston, John. Achieving Peace By the Year 2000: A Twelve-Part Proposal.
Oxford: OneWorld, 1988.
------. The Earth is But One Country. 3d ed. London:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1988.
------. "The Economy of a World Commonwealth." World Order, 9.4 (Summer
1975): 37-43.
------. Search for a Just Society. Oxford; George Ronald, 1989.
------. "Towards a World Economy." Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 3.3 (1990-1991): 21-34.
Huggins, Janet. "Exploring Male Oppression from a Family-Systems Perspective."
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 3.2 (1990-1991): 47-55.
Ioas, Leroy. "In the Days of the Guardian: A talk by the Hand of the Cause
Leroy Ioas." Deepen, 7.3 (Summer 1995): 14-26.
Jeffords, Raymond. "The Human Soul: A Bahá'í Perspective."
World Order, 17.1 (Fall 1982): 37-44.
Jensen, Mehri Samandari. "Religion and Family Planning in Contemporary Iran."
In Peter Smith, In Iran: Studies in Bábí and
Bahá'í History, volume 3. Los Angeles: Kalimát Press,
1986.
Johnson, K. Paul. Initiates of Theosophical Masters. Albany: State
University of New York Press, 1985.
---. "Theosophical Influence in Bahá'í History." Theosophical
History 4:1 (January 1992): 24-29.
Jordan, Daniel C. "Becoming Your True Self." World Order, 3.1 (Fall
1968): 43-51.
------. "Knowledge, Volition, and Action: The Steps to Spiritual
Transformation." World Order, 7.2 (Winter 1972-73): 43-48.
Johnson, K. Paul. Initiates of Theosophical Masters. Albany: State
University of New York Press, 1995.
Jordan, Daniel C., and Raymond P. Shepard, "The Philosophy of the ANISA Model."
World Order, 7.1 (Fall 1972): 23-31.
Kahn, Annie, Olin Karch, and Blu Mundy. Four Remarkable Indian Prophecies of
the Navajos, Toltecs, Mayas and Indians of Idaho. Happy Camp, Cal.:
Naturegraph Press, n.d.
Kalinowski, Michael F., and Daniel C. Jordan, "Being and Becoming: The ANISA
Theory of Development." World Order, 7.4 (Summer 1973): 17-26.
Kazemzadeh, Firuz, comp. trans. "The Báb: Accounts of His Martyrdom."
World Order, 8.1 (Fall 1973): 6-32.
Keene, James J. "Baha'i World Faith: Redefinition of Religion." Journal for
the Scientific Study of Religion, 6:2 (1967), 221-235.
Kennedy, Sharon Hatcher and Andrew Kennedy. "Bahá'í Youth and
Sexuality: A Personal/Professional View." Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 1.1 (1988-1989): 9-23.
Khadem, Javidukht. Zikrullah Khadem: The Itinerant Hand of the Cause of God.
With Love. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1990.
Khavari, Khalil A., and Susan W. Khavari. Creating a Successful Family.
Oxford: OneWorld, 1989.
------. Together Forever: A Handbook for Creating a Successful Marriage.
Oxford: OneWorld, 1993.
Khianra, Deepchand. Immortals. New Dehli: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust, 1988.
Khursheed, Anjam. Science and Religion: Towards the Restoration of an
Ancient Harmony. Oxford: OneWorld, 1987.
------. The Seven Candles of Unity: The Story of 'Abdu'l-Bahá in
Edinburgh. London: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1991.
------. "The Spiritual Foundations of Science." In Jack McLean, ed.
Revisioning the Sacred: New Perspectives on a Bahá'í Theology:
Studies in the Bábí and Bahá'í Religions,
volume 8. Los Angelse: Kalimat Press, 1997.
Kolstoe, John E. Consultation: A Universal Lamp of Guidance. Oxford:
George Ronald, 1985.
Krug, Florian, and Grace Krug. "Accounts of the Passing of
'Abdu'l-Bahá." World Order, 7.2 (Winter 1972-73): 38-41.
Labib, Muhammad. Seven Martyrs of Hurmuzak. Translated by Moojan Momen.
Oxford: George Ronald, 1981.
Lalonde, Roxanne. "Unity in Diversity: A Conceptual Framework for a Global
Ethic of Environmental Sustainability." Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 6.3 (Sept.-Dec. 1994): 39-73.
Lamb, Susan. "Review of Sexuality, Relationships, and Spiritual Growth."
Bahá'í Studies Review, 5:1 (1995): 99-102.
Lambden, Stephen. "An Episode in the Childhood of the Báb." In Peter
Smith, In Iran: Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í
History, volume 3. Los Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1986. Reprinted from
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 1.4 (March 1983): 22-31.
------. "Antichrist-Dajjál: Some notes on the Christian and Islamic
Antichrist traditions and their Bahá'í interpretation." Part I:
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 1.2 (1982): 14-50. Part II:
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 1.3 (1982): 3-43.
------. "Doing Bahá'í Scholarship in the 1990s: A Religious
Studies Perspective." Bahá'í Studies Review, 3.2 (1994):
59-80.
------. "The Islamo-Bahá'í Interpretation of Deuteronomy 33:2."
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 2.2 (Sept. 1983): 22-46.
------. "Muhammad and the Qur'án: Some Introductory Notes."
Bahá'í Studies Review, 1.1 (1991): 8-14.
------. "The Sinaitic Mysteries: Notes on the Moses/Sinai Motifs in
Bábí and Bahá'í Scripture." In Moojan Momen,
Studies in Honor of the Late Hasan M. Balyuzi: Studies in Bábí
and Bahá'í History, volume 5. Los Angeles: Kalimát
Press, 1988.
------. "Some Notes on Bahá'u'lláh's Gradually Evolving Claims of
the Adrianople/Edirne Period." Bahá'í Studies Bulletin,
5.3-6.1 (June 1991): 75-83.
------. "Some Thoughts on the Establishment of a Permanent Bahá'í
Studies Centre and Research Institute." Bahá'í Studies
Bulletin, 3.3 (Sept. 1985): 41-85. Reprinted in dialogue, 2:2&3
(1988): 34-40.
------. "The Word Bahá: Quintessence of the Greatest Name." The
Bahá'í Studies Review, 3.1 (1993): 19-42.
Land, George. "The Evolution of Reality." Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 3.1 (1990-1991: 19-30.
Laszlo, Ervin. "Humankind's Path to Peace in a Global Society." Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 2.2 (1989-1990): 19-36.
Lawson, Todd. "Interpretation as Revelation: the Qur'án Commentary of
the Báb." Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 2.4
(1989-1990): 17-43.
------. The Qur'án Commentary of Sayyid 'Alí Muhammad
Shírází, the Báb. Ph.D.
diss., McGill University, 1987.
------. "The Structure of Existence in the Báb's Tafsír and the
Perfect Man Motif." Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 6.2-3
(February 1992): 4-25.
------. "The Terms "Remembrance" (dhikr) and "Gate"
(báb) in the Báb's Commentary on the Sura of Joseph." In
Moojan Momen, Studies in Honor of the Late Hasan M. Balyuzi: Studies in the
Bábí and Bahá'í Religions, volume 5. Los
Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1988.
Leach, Bernard. Drawings, Verse, and Belief. London: OneWorld
Publications, 1988.
Learning About Growth: The Story of the Ruhi Institute and Large-scale
Expansion of the Bahá'í Faith in Colombia. Riviera Beach,
Fla: Palabra Publications, 1991.
Lee, Anthony A., ed. Circle of Peace: Reflections on the
Bahá'í Teachings. Los Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1985.
------, ed. Circle of Unity: Bahá'í Approaches to Current
Social Issues. Los Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1984.
Lee, Anthony A. "Bahá'í Values and Historical Inquiry: Musings on
the continuing Discussion of Ethics and Methodology." Bahá'í
Studies Bulletin, 3.3 (Sept. 1985): 27-40.
------. "The Rise of the Bahá'í Community of
'Ishqábád." The Bahá'í Faith in Russia:
Two Early Instances, Bahá'í Studies, vol. 5 (1979).
Lerche, Charles, ed. Emergence: Dimensions of a New World Order. London:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1991.
------, ed. Toward the Most Great Justice: Elements of Justice in the New
World Order. London: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1996.
------. "Us and Them: A Study of Alienation and World Order." Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 5.4 (Dec. 1993-Mar. 1994): 17-31.
Lincoln, A. L. "The Politics of Faith: A New Political Culture." World
Order, vol. 5, no. 2 (Winter 1970-71): 13-30.
Loehle, Craig. "On Human Origins: A Bahá'í Perspective."
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 2.4 (1989-90): 45-58.
------. On the Shoulders of Giants. Oxford: George Ronald, 1994.
Ma'ani, Baharieh Rouhani. "The Interdependence of Bahá'í
Communities: Services of North American Bahá'í Women to Iran."
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 4.1 (Mar.-June 1992): 19-46.
MacEoin, Denis. "The Babi Concept of Holy War." Religion, 12 (1982):
93-129.
------. "Bahá'í Fundamentalism and the Academic Study of the
Bábí Movement." Religion, 16 (Jan. 1986): 57-84.
------. "Changes in Authority in Qajar Shi'ism." In Edmund Bosworth and Carole
Hillenbrand, eds. Qajar Iran: Political, Social, and Cultural change
1800-1925. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1983. 148-76.
------. "A Critique of Moojan Momen's Response to my 'Problems of Scholarship
in a Bahá'í Context.'" Bahá'í Studies Bulletin,
1.4 (June, 1983): 66-80.
------. "The Concept of the Nation in Islam." World Order, 10.4 (Summer
1976): 7-21.
------. "Divisions and Authority Claims in Babism (1850-1866)." Studia
Iranica, 18:1 (1989): 93-129.
------. "Early Shaykhí Reactions to the Báb and His
Claims." In Moojan Momen, Studies in Bábí and
Bahá'í History, volume 1. Los Angeles: Kalimát Press,
1982.
------. "From Babism to Baha'ism: problems of militancy, quietism and
conflation in the construction of a religion." Religion, 13 (1983):
219-55.
------. From Shaykhism to Babism: A
Study in Charismatic Renewal in Shí'i Islam.
Ph.D. diss., King's College, 1979.
------. "Hierarchy, Authority, and Eschatology in Early Bábí
Thought." In Peter Smith, In Iran: Studies in Bábí and
Bahá'í History, volume 3. Los Angeles: Kalimát Press,
1986.
------. "Nineteenth-century Bábí Talismans." Studia
Iranica, 14.1 (1985): 77-98.
------. "Oriental Scholarship and the Bahá'í Faith." World
Order, 8.4 (Summer 1974): 9-21.
------. "Orthodoxy and heterodoxy in nineteenth-century Shí'ism:
the cases of Shaykhism and Babism." Journal American Orient
Society, 110 (April/June 1990).
------. "Problems of Scholarship in a Bahá'í Context."
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 1.3 (1982): 44-68.
------. Rituals in Babism and Baha'ism. London: British Academic Press,
1994.
------. The Sources of Bábí Doctrine and History. Leiden:
E. J. Brill, 1992.
Mahmoudi, Hoda. "From Oppression to Equality: The Emergence of the Feminist
Perspective." Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 1.3 (1989):
25-35.
------. "The Role of Men in Establishing the Equality of Women." World
Order, 26.3 (Spring 1995): 27-41.
Mahmoudi, Hoda and Richard Dabell. "Rights and Responsibilities in the
Bahá'í Family System." Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 5.2 (June-September 1992): 1-12.
Mahmoudi, Jalil. "'Irfán, Gnosis, or Mystical Knowledge." World
Order, 7.4 (Summer 1975): 5-15.
Maneck, Susan Stiles. "The Conversion of Religious Minorities to the
Bahá'í Faith in Iran: Some Preliminary Observations." Journal
of Bahá'í Studies, 3.3 (1990-1991): 35-48.
------. "Táhirih: A Religious Paradigm of Womanhood." Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 2.2 (1989): 39-54.
Manocha, Inder. "Bahá'í Art: Fact or Fiction?"
Bahá'í Studies Review, 3.1 (1993): 67-74.
Marconi, Eno. "Bahá'í Theatre?" World Order, 8.4 (Summer
1974): 22-31.
Marks, Geoffry W., comp. Call to Remembrance: Connecting the Heart to
Bahá'u'lláh. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing
Trust, 1992.
Mark Tobey: paintings from the collection of Joyce and Arthur Dahl.
N.p.: Department of Art and Architecture, Stanford University, 1967.
Marsella, Elena Maria. The Quest for Eden. New York: Philosophical
Library, 1966.
Martin, J. Douglas. "Bahá'u'lláh's Model for World Fellowship."
World Order, 11.1 (Fall 1976): 6-20.
------. "The Case of the Bahá'í Minority in Iran." The
Bahá'í World: An International Record, 1992-93. Haifa:
Bahá'í World Centre, 1993.
------. "The Missionary as Historian: William Miller and the
Bahá'í Faith." World Order, 10.3 (Spring 1976): 43-63.
------. The Persecution of the Bahá'ís of Iran, 1844-1984.
Bahá'í Studies, no. 12/13 (1984).
------. "The Spiritual Revolution." World Order, 8.2 (Winter 1973-74):
14-21.
Martyrdom of the Báb: A Compilation. Los Angeles: Kalimát
Press, 1992.
Ma'sumián, Bijan. "The Realms of Divine Existence as Described in the
Tablet of All Food." Deepen, 3.2.2 (Summer 1994): 11-17.
Ma'súmián, Farnaz. "Mysticism and the Bahá'í
Faith." Deepen, 6.3 (Spring 1995): 12-17.
------. Life After Death: Religious Views and Near-Death Experience.
Rockport, Maine: One World Publications, 1994.
Matthews, Gary L. Challenge of Bahá'u'lláh. Oxford: George
Ronald, 1993.
May, Dann. "The Bahá'í Principle of Religious Unity: A Dynamic
Perspective." In Jack McLean, ed. Revisioning the Sacred: New Perspectives
on a Bahá'í Theology: Studies in the Bábí and
Bahá'í Religions, volume 8. Los Angelse: Kalimat Press,
1997.
------. The Bahá'í Principle of Religious Unity and the
Challenge of Radical Pluralism. Master's thesis, University of North Texas,
1993.
------. "A Preliminary Survey of Hermeneutical Principles Found Within the
Bahá'í Writings." Journal of Bahá'í Studies,
1.3 (1989): 39-55.
McGlinn, Sen. "Review of Emergence: Dimensions of a New World Order." The
Bahá'í Studies Review, 3.1 (1993): 87-92.
------. "Some Considerations Relating to Inheritance Laws."
Bahá'í Studies Review, 5:1 (1995): 37-50.
------. "Towards the Enlightened Society." Bahá'í Studies
Review, 4.1 (1994): 76-82.
McLaughlin, Robert. These Perspicuous Verses: A Passage from the Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh. Oxford: George Ronald, 1982.
McLean, Jack. "Commentary on 'The Purpose of Poetry.'" Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 2.1 (1989-1990): 77-82.
------. "Deification of Jesus." World Order, 14.3/4 (Spring/Summer
1980): 23-45.
------. Dimensions in Spirituality. Oxford: George Ronald, 1994.
------. "The Knowledge of God: An Essay in Bahá'í Epistemology."
World Order, 12.3 (Spring 1978): 38-55.
------. "Prolegomena to a Bahá'í Theology." Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 5.1 (March-June 1992): 25-67.
------, ed. Revisioning the Sacred: New Perspectives on a
Bahá'í Theology: Studies in the Bábí and
Bahá'í Religions, volume 8. Los Angeles: Kalimát
Press, 1997.
McMullen, Mike. "The Atlanta Bahá'í Community and Race Unity:
1909-1950." World Order, 26.4 (Summer 1995): 27-43.
Mehrabkhani, Ruhullah. "Some Notes on Fundamental Principles: Western
Scholarship and the Religion of the Báb." Bahá'í
Studies Bulletin, 2:4 (1984): 22-43.
The Ministry of the Custodians, 1957-1963: An Account of the Stewardship of
the Hands of the Cause. Introduction by Amatu'l-Bahá
Rúhíyyih Khánum. Haifa: Bahá'í World
Centre Publications, 1992.
Mitchell, Glenford. "The Literature of Interpretation: Notes on the English
Writings of Shoghi Effendi." World Order, 7.2 (Winter 1972-73): 12-22.
Moayyad, Heshmat, ed. The Bahá'í Faith and Islam: Proceedings
of Symposium, McGill University, March 1984. Ottawa: Bahá'í
Studies Publications, 1990.
Momen, Moojan, ed. The Bábí and Bahá'í
Religions, 1844-1944: Some Contemporary Western Accounts. Oxford: George
Ronald, 1981.
------. "The Bahá'í Influence on the Reform Movements of the
Islamic World in the 1860's and 1870's." Bahá'í Studies
Bulletin, 2.2 (Sept. 1983): 47-66.
------ "The Bábí Upheavals 1848-1853." Bahá'í
Studies Bulletin, 4.2 (Jan. 1990): 4-21.
------. Bahá'í Focus on Development. London:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1988.
------. "Bahá'í Scholarship -- Definitions and Perspectives."
Bahá'í Studies Review, 3.2 (1994): 51-7.
------. "Bahá'u'lláh's Prophetology." Bahá'í
Studies Review, 5:1 (1995): 51-63.
------. "Chronology of Some of the Persecutions of the Bábís and
Bahá'ís in Iran, 1844-1978, A." The Bahá'í
World: An International Record, Volume XVIII. Haifa: Bahá'í
World Center, 1986: 864-6.
------. "The Cyprus Exiles." Bahá'í Studies Bulletin,
5.3-6.1 (1991): 84-113.
------. "Early Relations Between Christian Missionaries and the
Bábí and Bahá'í Communities." In Moojan Momen,
Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume
1. Los Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1982.
------. "Fundamentalism and Liberalism: Towards an Understanding of the
Dichotomy." Bahá'í Studies Review, 2.1 (1992): 11-24.
------. Hinduism and the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: George
Ronald, 1990.
------. "In All the Ways that Matter, Women Don't Count."
Bahá'í Studies Review, 4.1 (1994): 37-45.
------. An Introduction to Shí'í
Islam. Oxford: George Ronald, 1985.
------. "Learning from History." Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 2.2 (1989-1990): 55-68.
------. "The Psychology of Mysticism and its Relationship to the
Bahá'í Faith." Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 2.4
(1984): 4-21.
------. "Relativism: A Basis for Bahá'í Metaphysics." In Moojan
Momen, ed., Studies in Honor of the Late Hasan M. Balyuzi: Studies in the
Bábí and Bahá'í Religions, volume 5. Los
Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1988.
------. "Scholarship and the Bahá'í Community." Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 1.1 (1988-1989): 25-37.
------. A Short Introduction to the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford:
OneWorld, 1997.
------. "The Social Basis of the Bábí Upheavals."
International Journal of Middle East Studies, 14 (1983).
------. "The Social Location of the Bábí Movement: A Preliminary
Note." Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 3.3 (September 1985):
8-26.
------, ed. Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í
History, volume 1. Los Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1982.
------, ed. Studies in Honor of the Late Hasan M. Balyuzi: Studies in the
Bábí and Bahá'í Religions, volume 5. Los
Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1988.
------. "The Study of Religion: Some Comments on the Methodology of Studying
Religion." Bahá'í Studies Review, 1.1 (1991): 15-19.
Momen, Wendi. A Basic Bahá'í Dictionary. Oxford: George
Ronald, 1989.
------. Meditation. Oxford: George Ronald, n.d.
Morrison, Gary L. "'Abdu'l-Bahá and the Early American
Bahá'ís." World Order, 6.3 (Spring 1972): 31-44.
Morrison, Gayle. To Move the World: Louis G. Gregory and the Advancement of
Racial Unity in America. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing
Trust, 1982.
Motlagh, Hushidar. The Glorious Journey to God: Selections from Sacred
Scriptures on the Afterlife. (No publication information listed), 1994.
------. I Shall Return. Mount Pleasant, Mich.: Hugh Motlagh, 1992.
------. Unto Him Shall We Return: Selections from the Bahá'í
Writings on the Reality and Immortality of the Human Soul. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1985.
Mottahedeh, Roy. The Mantle of the Prophet: Religion and Politics in
Iran. New York: Pantheon Books, 1985.
Nabíl-i-Zarandí. The Dawn-Breakers: Nabíl's Narrative
of the Early Days of the Bahá'í Revelation. Translated and
edited by Shoghi Effendi. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing
Trust, 1932.
Nakhjavání, Bahíyyih. Asking Questions: A
Challenge to Fundamentalism. Oxford: George Ronald, 1990.
------. Four on an Island. Oxford: George Ronald, 1983.
Nash, Geoffrey. Iran's Secret Pogrom: The Conspiracy to Wipe Out the
Bahá'ís. Suffolk, U. K.: Neville Spearman, 1982.
------. The Phoenix and the Ashes: The Bahá'í Faith and the
Modern Apocalypse. Oxford: George Ronald, 1984.
National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States.
"Two Wings of a Bird: The Equality of Men and Women." World Order, 28.3
(Spring 1997): 7-12.
Nigosian, Solomon. World Faiths. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994.
Nikjoo, Hooshang, ed. Trends in Bahá'í Education: Proceedings
of the Second Symposium on Bahá'í Education, 1989. London:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1990.
Numrich, Paul D. "The Bahá'í Faith in World Religions Textbooks."
World Order, 25.1 (Fall, 1993): 51-59.
O'Neil, Linda. "Commentary on 'The Equality of Women: The Bahá'í
Principle of Complementarity.'" Journal of Bahá'í Studies,
2.4 (1989-1990): 81-4.
Parrinder, Geoffrey. Sexual Morality in the World's Religions. Oxford:
OneWorld Publications, 1997.
Parry, Robert. "Philosophical Theology in Bahá'í Scholarship."
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 6.4-7.2 (Oct. [Dec.] 1992):
66-91.
Parsons, Agnes, Richard Hollinger, ed. 'Abdu'l-Bahá in America: Agnes
Parsons' Diary. Los Angeles: Kalimat Press, 1996.
Penn, Michael L. "The Journey Out of the Racial Divide." World Order,
28:2 (Winter 1996-97): 7-21.
Perkins, Mary, and Philip Hainsworth. The Bahá'í Faith.
London: Ward Lock Educational, 1980.
Perry, Mark. "Pioneering Racial Unity: The Chicago Bahá'ís,
1919-39." World Order, 20.2 (Winter 1985-86): 41-60.
Phelps, Myron H. The Master in 'Akká (originally published as
The Life and Teachings of Abbas Effendi). Los Angeles: Kalimát
Press, 1985.
Poirier, Brent. "The Flow of Divine Authority." Deepen Magazine, No. 9
(1996), reprinted in "The American Bahá'í," August 1, 1996,
pull-out section.
Poostchi, Iraj. Agriculture Beyond 2000: A Bahá'í
Perspective. Henley-on-Thames, U.K.: Poostchi Publishing, 1992.
The Power of the Covenant. Three vols. Comp. National Spiritual Assembly
of the Bahá'ís of Canada. Thornhill, Ont.: Bahá'í
Publications Canada, 1976-77.
The Power of the Covenant: A Compilation. Rev. ed. Comp. National
Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States. Wilmette,
Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1972.
"A Question of Gender: A Forum on the Status of Men in Bahá'í
Laws." dialogue 2:1 (Summer/Fall 1987): 14-34.
Quinn, Jalalíyyíh. "Notes to the Paintings in Honor of the Vision
of Shoghi Effendi." In The Vision of Shoghi Effendi: Proceedings of the
Association for Bahá'í Studies Ninth Annual Conference.
Ottawa: Association for Bahá'í Studies, 1993.
Rabbání, Rúhíyyih. The Guardian of the
Bahá'í Faith. London: Bahá'í Publishing Trust,
1988.
------. A Manual for Pioneers. New Delhi: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust, 1981.
------. Prescription for Living, revised edition. Oxford: George Ronald,
1978.
------. The Priceless Pearl. London: Bahá'í Publishing
Trust, 1969.
Rafati, Vahid. The Development of
Shaykhi Thought in
Shí'i Islam. Ph.D. diss., University of
California at Los Angeles, 1979.
------. "The Development of Shaykhí Thought in
Shí'í Islam." In Heshmat Moayyad, ed., The
Bahá'í Faith and Islam: Proceedings of Symposium, McGill
University, March 1984. Ottawa: Bahá'í Studies Publications,
1990.
Raman, S. Pattabi. "My Quest for the Fulfillment of Hinduism." World
Order, 3.3 (Spring 1969): 20-28.
------. "World Education: In Quest of a Paradigm." World Order, 19.3/4
(Spring/Summer 1985): 53-64.
Rathbone, Eliza A. Mark Tobey: City Paintings. Washington: National
Gallery of Art, 1984.
Rawlings, Felicity. "Maharishi Ayurveda: A Bahá'í Exploration."
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 4.3 (Sept.-Dec. 1991): 35-53.
Ray, Marilyn J. "Women and Men: Toward Achieving Complementarity." World
Order, 27.1 (Fall 1995): 9-18.
"Response to Revelation: Poetry by Bahá'ís."
Bahá'í Studies, vol. 7. Ottawa: Canadian Association for
Studies on the Bahá'í Faith, 1980.
Ricklefs, Randy. "Astrology: A romantic view of science."
Deepen, 2.1 (Spring 1994): 19-26.
Riggs, Robert F. The Apocalypse Unsealed. New York: Philosophical
Library, 1981.
Robiati, Giuseppe. "Faith and World Economy": A Joint Venture
Bahá'í Perspective. Trans. Julio Savi. Recco, Italy: Gruppo
Editoriale Insieme, 1991.
Roesch, Ronald. "Psychology and Peace." Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 1.2 (1988-1989): 47-59.
Roohizadegan, Olya. Olya's Story: A Survivor's Dramatic Account of the
Persecution of Bahá'ís in Revolutionary Iran. Oxford:
OneWorld, 193.
Rosenfeld, Robert B., and Michael H. Winger-Bearskin. "Principles of
Consultation Applied to the Process of Innovation in a Corporate Environment."
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 3.1 (1990-1991): 31-48.
Rost, H. T. D. The Brilliant Stars: The Bahá'í Faith and the
Education of Children. Oxford: George Ronald, 1979.
------. The Golden Rule: A Universal Ethic. Oxford: George Ronald,
1986.
Ruhe, David S. Door of Hope: A Century of the Bahá'í Faith in
the Holy Land. Oxford: George Ronald, 1983.
------. Robe of Light: The Persian Years of the Supreme Prophet
Bahá'u'lláh. Oxford: George Ronald, 1994.
Russell, Jane J. "Spiritual Vertigo at the Edge of Gender Equality." World
Order, 27.1 (Fall 1995): 41-56.
Rutstein, Nathan. Education on Trial. Oxford: OneWorld, 1992.
------. Healing Racism in America: A Prescription for the Disease.
Springfield, Mass.: Whitcomb, 1993.
------. Spirit in Action: Teaching the Bahá'í Faith.
Oxford: George Ronald, 1984.
------. To Be One: A Battle Against Racism. Oxford: George Ronald,
1988.
Sabet, Huschmand. The Heavens Are Cleft Asunder. Oxford: George Ronald,
1975.
------. The Way Out of the Dead End: A Plea for Peace. Translated by
Patricia Crampton. Oxford: George Ronald, 1986.
Sabri, Shirin, ed. "Abiding Silence: An Anthology of Poems in Honour of the
Bahá'ís of Iran." Bahá'í Studies. Vol. 15.
Ottawa: Association for Bahá'í Studies, 1986.
------. "The Purpose of Poetry." Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 1.1 (1988-1989): 39-58.
Sahbá, Faríburz. "Art and Architecture: A Bahá'í
Perspective." Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 7:3 (March-June
1997).
Saiedi, Nader. "Faith, Reason, and Society in Bahá'í
Perspective." World Order, 21.3/4 (Spring/Summer 1987): 9-22.
------. "The Middle East and World Peace," in World Order, 26.1 (Fall
1994): 33-43.
Salmání, Ustád Muhammad-'Alí. My Memories of
Bahá'u'lláh. Translated by Marzieh Gail. Los Angeles:
Kalimát Press, 1982.
Savi, Julio. The Eternal Quest for God: An Introduction to the Divine
Philosophy of 'Abdu'l-Bahá. Oxford: George Ronald, 1989.
Schaefer, Udo. "Answer to a Theologian." In The Light Shineth in Darkness.
Translated by Hélène Momtaz Neri and Oliver Coburn. Oxford:
George Ronald, 1977.
------. "The Bahá'í Faith and Islam." In The Light Shineth in
Darkness. Translated by Hélène Momtaz Neri and Oliver Coburn.
Oxford: George Ronald, 1977.
------. "'The Balance hath been Appointed': Some Thoughts on the Publication of
the Kitáb-i-Aqdas." Bahá'í Studies Review,
3.1 (1993): 43-54.
------. Beyond the Clash of Religions: The Emergence of a New Paradigm.
Trans. Geraldine Schuckelt. Prague: Zero Palm Press, 1995.
------. "Ethics for a Global Society." Bahá'í Studies
Review, 4.1 (1994): 47-56.
------. The Imperishable Dominion: The Bahá'í Faith and the
Future of Mankind. Translated by Janet Rawling-Keitel et al. Oxford:
George Ronald, 1983.
------. In a Blue Haze: On the Ethics of Smoking. Stockholm: Zero Palm
Press, 1997.
------. The Light Shineth in Darkness. Translated by
Hélène Momtaz Neri and Oliver Coburn. Oxford: George Ronald,
1977.
------. "Muhammad and the West." In The Light Shineth in Darkness.
Translated by Hélène Momtaz Neri and Oliver Coburn. Oxford:
George Ronald, 1977.
------. "The New Morality." Bahá'í Studies Review 5:1
(1995): 65-82.
Schaefer, Udo, et al. Desinformation als Methode: die
Bahá'ismus-monographie des F. Ficicchia. Hildescheim, Germany: Georg
Olms Verlag, 1995.
Scholl, Steven. "More Problems...Scientific Method or a Total Hermeneutics?"
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 2.2 (Sept. 1983): 66-81.
------. "The Remembrance of God: An invocation technique in Sufism and the
writings of the Báb and Bahá'u'lláh."
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 2.3 (Dec. 1983): 73-104.
Schweitz, Martha L. "The Kitáb-i-Aqdas: Bahá'í Law,
Legitimacy, and World Order." Journal of Bahá'í Studies,
6.1 (Mar.-June 1994): 35-59.
------. "Of Webs and Ladders: Gender Equality in Bahá'í Law."
World Order, 27.1 (Fall 1995): 21-39.
Sears, William. A Cry from the Heart: The Bahá'ís in Iran.
Oxford: George Ronald, 1982.
------. "The Continental Board of Counselors: Its Role and Station: a talk by
the Hand of the Cause William Sears." Deepen, 9.3/4 (Winter 1996): 28-39.
------. Thief in the Night: or, The Strange Case of the Missing Millennium.
Oxford: George Ronald, 1961.
Selected Proceedings from the Bahá'í International Health
Agency. Bahá'í Studies Notebook. 4.1. Ottawa: Association for
Bahá'í Studies, 1985.
Seow, Jimmy Ewe Huat. The Pure in Heart: The Historical Development of the
Bahá'í Faith in China, Southeast Asia and Far East. Mona
Vale, N.S.W.: Bahá'í Publications Australia, 1991.
Shams, Badi. A Bahá'í Perspective on Economics of the
Future. New Delhi: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1989.
Shoghi Effendi. The Advent of Divine Justice. 3d ed. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1971.
------. Arohanui: Letters From Shoghi Effendi to New Zealand. Suva,
Fiji: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1982.
------. Bahá'í Administration: Selected Messages, 1922-1932.
7th ed. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1974.
------. Citadel of Faith: Messages to America, 1947-1957. Wilmette,
Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1965.
------. Call to the Nations: Extracts from the Writings of Shoghi Effendi.
Haifa: Bahá'í World Centre, 1977.
------. Dawn of a New Day. New Delhi: Bahá'í Publishing
Trust, 1970.
------. God Passes By. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing
Trust, 1970.
------. High Endeavors: Messages to Alaska. Anchorage: National
Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Alaska, 1976.
------. Letters from the Guardian to Australia and New Zealand, 1923-1957.
Sydney: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of
Australia, 1970.
------. The Light of Divine Guidance: The Messages from the Guardian of the
Bahá'í Faith to the Bahá'ís of Germany and Austria.
Lofheim: Bahá'í-Verlag, 1982.
------. Messages to America. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust, 1947.
------. Messages to the Bahá'í World. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1958.
------. Unfolding Destiny: Messages from the Guardian of the
Bahá'í Faith to the Bahá'í Community of the British
Isles. London: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1981.
------. The World Order of Bahá'u'lláh: Selected Letters by
Shoghi Effendi. 2d rev. ed. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing
Trust, 1974.
Shoghi Effendi and The Universal House of Justice. A Special Measure of
Love: The Importance and Nature of the Teaching Work among the Masses. Messages
from Shoghi Effendi and The Universal House of Justice. Compiled by the
Research Department of the Universal House of Justice. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1974.
Shook, Glenn A. Mysticism, Science, and Revelation. Oxford: George
Ronald, 1953.
Sims, Barbara R. The Taiwan Bahá'í Chronicle: A Historical
Record of the Early Days of the Bahá'í Faith in Taiwan.
Tokyo: N.p., 1994.
------. Traces that Remain: A Pictorial History of the Early Days of the
Bahá'í Faith Among the Japanese. Tokyo: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust, 1989.
Smith, Peter. "The American Bahá'í Community, 1894-1917: A
Preliminary Survey." In Moojan Momen, Studies in Bábí and
Bahá'í History, volume 1. Los Angeles: Kalimát Press,
1982.
------. The Bábí and Bahá'í Religions: From
Messianic Shí'ism to a World Religion.
Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1987.
------. "The Bábí Movement: A Resource Mobilization Perspective."
In Peter Smith, In Iran: Studies in Bábí and
Bahá'í History, volume 3. Los Angeles: Kalimát Press,
1986.
------, ed. In Iran: Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í
History, volume 3. Los Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1986.
------. "Millenarianism in the Bábí and Bahá'í
Religions." In Roy Wallis, ed., Millenialism and Charisma. Belfast: The
Queen's University, 1982: 231-283.
------. "Motif Research: Peter Berger and the Bahá'í Faith."
Religion, 8 (Autumn 1978): 210-33.
------. "A Note on Bábí and Bahá'í Numbers in
Iran." Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 1.4 (1983): 3-7. Reprinted
in Iranian Studies 17.2-3 (1984): 295-301.
------. "Reality Magazine: Editorship and Ownership of an American
Bahá'í Periodical." In Juan Cole and Moojan Momen, From Iran
East and West: Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í
History, volume 2. Los Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1984.
------. A Short History of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: One
World, 1996.
------. A Sociological Study of the Bábí and
Bahá'í Religions. Ph.D. diss., University of Lancaster,
1982.
Smith, Peter and Moojan Momen. "The Bahá'í Faith 1957-1988: A
Survey of Contemporary Developments." Religion, 19 (Jan. 1989): 63-91.
Smith, Phillip R. "The Bahá'í Faith and Religious Diversity."
Bahá'í Studies Review, 1.1 (1991): 25-30.
------. "What Was a Bahá'í? Concerns of British
Bahá'ís, 1900-1920." In Moojan Momen, Studies in Honor of the
Late Hasan M. Balyuzi: Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í
History, volume 5. Los Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1988.
Sohrab, Mirza Ahmad. Abdul Baha in Egypt. New York: J.H. Sears &
Company Inc, 1929.
Sours, Michael W. A Study of Bahá'u'lláh's Tablet to the
Christians. Oxford: OneWorld, 1990.
------. "Bah'a'í Cosmological Symbolism and the Ecofeminist Critique."
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 7:1 (1995): 23-56.
------. "Concerning Differences between Christian and Bahá'í
Terminology in Dr. Robert Stockman's article 'Jesus [sic] in the
Bahá'í Writings.'" The Bahá'í Studies
Review, 3.1 (1993): 79-86.
------. "Immanence and Transcendence in Divine Scripture." Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 5.2 (June-Sept. 1992):13-56.
------. "The Maid of Heaven, the Image of Sophia, and the Logos Personification
of the Spirit of God in Scripture and Sacred Literature." Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 4.1 (Mar.-June 1991): 47-65.
------. Preparing for a Bahá'í-Christian Dialogue, Volume One:
Understanding Biblical Evidence. Oxford: OneWorld, 1990.
------. Preparing for a Bahá'í-Christian Dialogue, Volume Two:
Understanding Christian Beliefs. Oxford: OneWorld, 1991.
------. "Seeing with the Eye of God: Relationships Between Theology and
Interpretation." Bahá'í Studies Review, 1.1 (1991):
31-9.
Special Issue on Health. Bahá'í Studies Notebook,
2.1. Comp. Association for Bahá'í Studies. Ottawa: Canadian
Association for Studies on the Bahá'í Faith, 1981.
Sprague, Sidney. A Year With the Bahá'ís of India and Burma.
Los Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1986.
Stendardo, Luigi. Leo Tolstoy and the Bahá'í Faith.
Translated by Jeremy Fox. Oxford: George Ronald, 1985.
Stephens, Kenneth D. So Great A Cause! A Surprising New Look at the Latter
Day Saints. Happy Camp, Cal.: Naturegraph Publishers, 1973.
Stiles, Susan. "Early Zoroastrian Conversions to the Bahá'í Faith
in Yazd, Iran." In Juan Cole and Moojan Momen, From Iran East and West:
Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í History, volume 2.
Los Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1984. (A revised version of Zoroastrian
Conversions to the Bahá'í Faith in Yazd, Írán.
Master's thesis, University of Arizona, 1983.)
Stockman, Robert H. "The American Bahá'í Community in the
Nineties." In America's Alternative Religions. Ed. Timothy Miller.
Albany: SUNY Press, 1995: 243-248.
------. "The American Bahá'í Identity, 1894-1921."
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, 6.4-7.2 (Oct. [Dec.] 1992):
66-91.
------. The Bahá'í Faith and American Protestantism. Th.
D. diss., Harvard University, 1990.
------. "The Bahá'í Faith and Primal Religions." Deepen,
10.4.1 (1996): 20-3, 31.
------. The Bahá'í Faith in America: Origins, 1892-1900,
volume 1. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1985.
------. The Bahá'í Faith in America: Early Expansion,
1900-1912, volume 2. Oxford: George Ronald, 1995.
------. "The Bahá'í Faith in America: One Hundred Years."
World Order, 25.3 (Spring 1994): 9-23.
------. "The Bahá'í Faith in England and Germany, 1900-1913."
World Order, 27.3 (Spring 1996): 31-42.
------. "Jesus Christ in the Bahá'í Writings."
Bahá'í Studies Review, 1.2 (1992).
------. "Review of Music, Devotions, and
Mashriqu'l-Adhkár."
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 1.2 (1988-1989): 7.18
Stoddard, Susan Clay. "Education and Moral Development in Children." Journal
of Bahá'í Studies, 1.1 (1988-1989): 59-75.
Storch, Juanita. "You Are Happy Because You Have Seen 'Abdu'l-Bahá."
World Order, 25.1 (Fall 1993): 25-43.
Streets, Donald T., and Daniel C. Jordan. "Guiding the Process of Becoming: The
ANISA Theories of Curriculum and Teaching." World Order, 7.4 (Summer
1973): 29-40.
Ta'eed, Lata. "Sex, Gender, and New Age Stereotyping." Bahá'í
Studies Review, 4.1 (1994): 57-70.
Taherzadeh, Adib. The Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh. Oxford:
George Ronald, 1992.
------. The Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh. Four Vols. Oxford:
George Ronald, 1974-87.
Tai-Seale, Thomas. Thy Kingdom Come: A Biblical Introduction to the
Bahá'í Faith. Los Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1992.
Tanyi, Enoch B. "The Syrian Prophet(s)." Journal of Bahá'í
Studies, 4.3 (Sept.-Dec. 1991): 60-62.
Taylor, Bonnie J. The Pupil of the Eye: African Americans in the World Order
of Bahá'u'lláh. Riviera Beach, Florida: Palabra Publications,
1995.
Thomas, June Manning. "Race Unity: Implications for the Metropolis." Journal
of Bahá'í Studies, 6.4 (Dec. 1994-Mar. 1995): 23-42.
Thomas, Richard W. Racial Unity: An Imperative for Social Progress.
Ottawa: Association for Bahá'í Studies, 1990.
------. Understanding Racial Unity: A Study of U.S. Race Relations.
Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, 1996.
Thompson, Juliet. Diary of Juliet Thompson. Los Angeles: Kalimát
Press, 1983.
Towards an Ever-Advancing Civilization. Bahá'í Studies
Notebook. 3.3-4. Ottawa: Association for Bahá'í Studies,
1984.
Troxel, Duane K. "Islam: A Brief Introduction." Deepen, 3.2.2 (Summer,
1994): 18-27.
Tuman, Ludwig. "Toward Critical Foundations of a World Culture of the Arts."
World Order, 9.4 (Summer 1975): 8-35.
------. Mirror of the Divine: Art in the Bahá'í World
Community. Oxford: George Ronald, 1993.
Ullman, Chana. The Transformed Self: The Psychology of Religious
Conversion. New Yrok: Plenum Press, 1989.
Universal House of Justice. Compilation of Compilations, two volumes.
Victoria, Australia: Bahá'í Publications Australia, 1991.
------. The Constitution of the Universal House of Justice. Haifa:
Bahá'í World Centre, 1972.
------. The Continental Board of Counselors. Letters, Extracts from Letters,
and Cables from the Universal House of Justice. Compiled by the National
Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States. Wilmette,
Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1981.
------. Individual Rights and Freedoms in the World Order of
Bahá'u'lláh. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing
Trust, 1989.
------. Messages from the Universal House of Justice, 1968-1973.
Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1976.
------. The Promise of World Peace. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í
Publishing Trust, 1985.
------. "References on Philosophy." Bahá'í Studies
Bulletin, 5.1-2 (Jan. 1991): 76-87.
------. Third Epoch of the Formative Age: Messages from the Universal House
of Justice, 1963-86. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust,
1996.
------. Wellspring of Guidance: Messages 1963-1968. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1969.
------. A Wider Horizon: Selected Messages of the Universal House of
Justice, 1983-1992. Comp. ed. Paul Lample. Riviera Beach, Fla: Palabra
Publications, 1992.
Vader, John Paul. For the Good of Mankind: August Forel and the
Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: George Ronald, 1984.
Vick, Holly Hanson. Social and Economic Development: A Bahá'í
Approach. Oxford: George Ronald, 1989.
Vision of Shoghi Effendi: Proceedings of the Association for
Bahá'í Studies Ninth Annual Conference. Ottawa: Association
for Bahá'í Studies, 1993.
Vreeland, Claire. And the Trees Clapped Their Hands: Stories of
Bahá'í Pioneers. Oxford: George Ronald, 1994.
Waite, Gary K. "The Religious State: A Comparative Study of Sixteenth- and
Nineteenth-century Opposition." Journal of Bahá'í Studies,
7:1 (March-June 1995): 69-90.
Walbridge, John. Sacred Acts, Sacred Space, Sacred Time:
Bahá'í Studies volume I. Oxford: George Ronald, 1996.
Walbridge, Linda. "Rituals: An American Bahá'í Dilemma."
Bahá'í Studies Review, 5:1 (1995): 89-92.
Walbridge, Linda S., and John Walbridge. "Bahá'í Laws on the
Status of Men." World Order, 19.1/2 (Fall 1984/Winter 1984-85): 25-36.
Walters, H.A. The Ahmadíya Movement. New Delhi: Anohar
Publications, 1918, reprinted 1991.
Warburg, Margit. "The Circle, the Brotherhood, and the Ecclesiastical Body:
Bahá'í in Denmark, 1925-1987." In Armin W. Geertz and Jeppe
Sinding Jensen, eds., Religion, Tradition, and Renewal. Aarhus, Denmark:
Aarhus Univ. Press, 1991.
------. "Conversion: Considerations Before a Field-Work in a
Bahá'í Village in Kerala." In Asko Parpola and Bent Smidt Hansen,
South Asian Religion and Society: Studies on Asian Topics, No. 11.
London: Curzon Press, 1986.
------. "Economic Rituals: The Structure and Meaning of Donations in the Baha'i
Religion." Social Compass, 40 (1993), 25-31.
------. "Growth Patterns of New Religions: The Case of Bahá'í,"
in Robert Towler, ed. In New Religions and the New Europe. Aarhus:
Aarhus University Press, 1995,
Ward, Allan L. Two Hundred Thirty-Nine Days: 'Abdu'l-Bahá's Journey
in America. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1979.
Weaver, Craig W. and Helen Bond. The Glorious Journey: a
Bahá'í Approach to Work and Service. Taipei:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust of Taiwan, 1989.
Weinberg, Robert. Ethel Jenner Rosenberg: The Life and Times of England's
Outstanding Bahá'í Pioneer Worker. Oxford: George Ronald,
1995.
Weixelman, Joseph O. "The Traditional Navajo Religion and the
Bahá'í Faith." World Order, 20.1 (Fall, 1985): 31-51.
Wells, Bruce. From Discontent: The Biography of a Mystic. Oxford: George
Ronald, 1985.
White, Robert. "Spiritual Foundations for an Ecologically Sustainable Society."
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 2.1 (1989): 33-57; reprinted in
The Bahá'í World: An International Record, 1992-93. Haifa:
Bahá'í World Centre, 1993; reprinted in Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 7:2 (June-September 1995): 47-74.
White, Roger. Another Song, Another Season: Poems and Portrayals.
Oxford: George Ronald, 1979.
------. Occasions of Grace: More Poems and Portrayals. Oxford: George
Ronald, 1992.
------. A Witness of Pebbles. Oxford: George Ronald, 1981.
Whitehead, O. Z. Portraits of Some Bahá'í Women. Oxford:
George Ronald, 1996.
------. Some Bahá'ís to Remember. Oxford: George Ronald,
1983.
------. Some Early Bahá'ís of the West. Oxford: George
Ronald, 1976.
Whitmore, Bruce W. The Dawning Place: The Building of a Temple, the Forging
of the North American Bahá'í Community. Wilmette, Ill.:
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1984.
Wilcox, Patricia. Bahá'í Families: Perspectives, Principles,
Practice. Oxford: George Ronald, 1991.
Willoya, William, and Vinson Brown. Warriors of the Rainbow: Strange and
Prophetic Dreams of the Indian Peoples. Happy Camp, Cal.: Naturegraph
Press, n.d.
Wilson, S. G. Modern Movements Among Moslems. New York: Fleming H.
Revell, 1916.
Winters, Jonah. Dying For God: Conceptions of Martyrdom in the Shi'i,
Babi, and Bahai Religions. Master's thesis, University of Toronto, 1997.
------. "Review of Buddhism and the Bahá'í Faith."
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 6.4 (Dec. 1994-Mar. 1995):
70-74.
Woodman, Ross. A Bahá'í Academy Course on the Gleanings.
Thornhill, Ont.: The Bahá'í Academy, 1990.
------. A Bahá'í Academy Course on the
Kitáb-i-Íqán. Thornhill, Ont.: The
Bahá'í Academy, 1990.
------. A Bahá'í Academy Course on the Promised Day is Come.
Thornhill, Ont.: The Bahá'í Academy, 1990.
------. "Bahá'u'lláh's Influence on the New York School of
Painting: The "Unapprehended Inspiration" of Newman and Rothko." Journal of
Bahá'í Studies, 4.1 (Mar.-June 1991): 67-89.
------. Crystallizations: 20 Works by Bahá'í Artists. Ross
Woodman, ed. Ottawa: Bahá'í Studies Publications, 1996.
------. "The End of the World: Whatever Happened? Or Leftover Time to Kill."
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 3.3 (1990-1991): 49-66.
------. "In the Beginning Was the Word: Apocalypse and the Education of the
Soul." Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 5.4 (Dec. 1993-Mar.
1994): 33-57.
Zohoori, Elias, comp. The Throne of the Inner Temple. Kingston, Jamaica:
University Printery, Univ. of West Indies, 1985.
Zrudlo, Leo R. "The Missing Dimension in the Built Environment: A Challenge for
the 21st Century." Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 3.1
(1990-1991): 49-66.
Index of Authors and Subjects
See also the index to the "Leiden List," p. 142, above.
As this index was generated automatically, subjects have not been thoroughly collated. For example, "America," "North America," and "United States" are all separate entries. The following names and terms were not included due to their frequency: 'Abdu'l-B
ahá, The Báb, Bahá'í, Bahá'u'lláh.
A
Ahmadíyya 98
Ahsá'í, Shaykh Ahmad 95
Attár. Fáridu'd-Dín 82
Abdo, Lil 72
Abedi, Mehdi 85, 107
Abizadeh, Arash 40, 69,
90, 110
Abjad numerology 72, 95
Abraham 8, 102, 105
Abu'l-Fadl Golpaygání, Mírzá 94, 103, 116
Adamic Cycle 61
Adkin, Laurie 91
Administrative order 38, 39, 40, 42, 59, 64, 73, 112
Adrianople 61
Afnán, Elham 45, 95, 152
Afnán, Muhammad 85, 92
Afnan, Ruhi 82, 89
Africa 10, 24, 52, 59
Afterlife 43, 116
Agriculture 43, 44, 67
Ahdieh, Hussein 38
Táhirih 75
Aidun, Gol 58
Akká 37, 61, 78, 174
Ala'i, Sitarih 74
Amanat, Abbas 23, 47, 48, 49, 51, 95
America 10, 37, 38, 40, 64
Anabaptists 85
Anderson, Angela 105
Anthropology 173
Anti-Bahá'í Society 85
Apartheid 96
Apophatic theology 116
Arabic 48, 49, 53, 87, 146
Arc 78, 174
Architecture 44, 46, 79
Ark 78
Armstrong-Ingram, Jackson 46, 55, 75, 79, 90, 92
Art 8, 44-46, 79
Asceticism 91
Asia 10, 24, 56, 57, 58
Astrology 94-95
Atkinson, Anne Gordon 44, 75
Augustine 84
Aull, Brian 90, 110, 113
Australia 10
Authoritative translations, defined 33
Auxiliary Board 9, 39, 41, 175
Ayman, Iraj 67
Ayyám-i-Há 71, 72
B
Babism 10, 46-51, 58, 71, 78, 175
Bach, Marcus 112
Backwell, Richard 99
Badiee, Heshmatollah 45
Baghdad 61, 78, 89
Bahá'í communities 52- 55, 63, 94
Bahá'í Era 61
Bahá'í National Center (U.S.) 40
Bahá'í World Center 8, 39, 44, 46, 60, 78, 89, 103, 111, 174
Bahá'í World Community 40
Bahá'í World Congress 173
Bahá'u'lláh's literary corpus 62, 159
Balch, Robert 93
Balyuzi, H.M. 37, 38, 7, 51, 58, 61, 105
Banani, Amin 86
Barker, Patrick 73, 74
Barnes, William 117
Bartee, Jim 75
Bartholomew, G. A. 110
Bausani, Alessandro 83
Bayat, Mangol 51
Beg, Kazim 146
Belize 10
Berger, Peter 24, 64, 152
Besant, Annie 105
Bethel, Fereshteh Taheri 86, 87, 95
Beveridge, Kent 61
Bharati, Agehananda 64
Bible, The 93, 103, 111, 160
Bishárát 175
Blumenthal, Erik 105, 152
Bolivia 52
Bond, Helen 118
Bosworth, Edmund 50
Boyles, Ann 44, 75
Bramson-Lerche, Loni 24, 40, 52, 59, 83
Braun, Eunice 40, 43, 59, 60, 78
Brazil 67
Breneman, Anne 88, 114
Brill, Susan 109
Brown, Keven 94
Browne, E. G. 48, 53, 54, 58, 65 145, 146
Bryson, Alan 43
Buck, Christopher 48, 51, 61, 62, 77, 81, 92, 95, 100, 103, 152, 194, 106, 108, 109, 117
Buddhism 8, 10, 57, 68, 92, 94, 98, 101, 1`02, 111, 160
Bulgaria 53
Burma 10, 56, 57
Bushrui, Suheil 45, 62
C
Cabala 95
Calendar 71, 72
Calligraphy 45
Cameron, Doug 173
Cameron, Glenn 7, 35
Campbell, Joseph 97
Canada 24, 54, 55, 58, 59
Caton, Peggy 46, 74
Central America 59
Ceremonies 107
Chance, Hugh 78
Chase, Thornton 37, 38, 55, 89
Chastity 70
Chew, Phyllis 99, 101
Chicago 38, 117, 173
Children 69
China 10, 57
Chistianity 112
Chouleur, Jacques 57
Christ 8, 99, 108, 159, 160
Christianity 10, 23,
48, 49, 50, 57, 58, 82, 85, 87, 89, 92, 93, 94, 99, 100, 108, 111, 115, 116, 159, 160
Civilization 9, 79
Clergy 9, 62
Cole, Juan R. I. 23, 46, 51, 61, 62, 65, 76, 77, 81, 91, 100, 102, 107, 111, 116, 151, 152
Coleman, John 67
Collins, William 7, 33, 51, 55, 56, 104, 109, 111, 147
Colombia 64
Communities, Bahá'í 2, 8, 9, 10, 13, 15, 19, 24, 39, 41, 54, 60, 62, 107
Comparative religion 1, 13, 23
Comte, Auguste 68
Confucianism 99, 100, 101
Conner, Daniel 99, 103
Conow, B. Hoff 88, 106, 116, 117
Conrader, Constance 75
Consultation 9, 39, 63, 71
Conversion 23, 52, 56, 58, 63, 64, 103, 106
Coomaraswamy 97
Cooper, Roger 85
Cosmology 68, 115, 116
Counselors 9, 39, 41, 175
Covenant 24, 37, 39, 64, 72, 80
Covenant-breaking 93
Coy, Genevieve 114
Creation 8, 13, 65, 79, 114
Cyprus 58
D
Dabell, Richard 69
Danesh, Amelia 112
Danesh, Helen 112
Danesh, Hossein 69, 77, 84, 95, 96, 113, 114, 117
Danesh, John N. 84, 112
Danish 53
Davidson, John 67, 84
Dawes, Colleen 74
Death 8, 43
Deepenings 10, 176
Deganawida 104
Democracy 39
Descartes 89
Devil 8
Diessner, Rhett 95
Divorce 9, 69
Drewek, Paula 72
Drug use 69
E
Earl, David 81
Earth 9, 43, 67
Ecology 43, 67
Economics 9, 10, 43, 60, 65, 66, 73, 80, 90, 113, 114, 173
Eden 108
Education 9, 43, 66, 67, 69, 74, 88, 104, 114
Egypt 10, 38, 39
Eliade, Mircea 97
Enáyat, Mohsen 102
Encyclopedias 57
England 53
Environment 43, 67, 117
Epistemology 68
Equality 9, 70, 73, 74,
75, 80, 92, 96, 113, 117
Erickson, David 45
Eschatology 93
Esperanto 53
Esslemont 7, 35, 83
Ethics 68, 80, 81, 109
Europe 10, 37, 38,
52, 53, 58, 59
Evil 112
Evolution 23, 83, 93, 110
Exegesis 77
Eyford, Glen 44
F
Faizi, Gloria 7, 35, 73, 74
Family Life 9, 69
Famine 139
Fananapazir, Khazeh 76, 77, 100, 102,
Farnsworth, Glen 93
Fasting 8, 70, 72, 91, 176
Fazel, Seena 48, 77, 80, 97, 98, 100, 102, 109, 111, 151, 153
Feast 10, 62, 71, 107, 176
Female Imagery 72
Feminism 74, 75, 160
Ferraby, John 7, 35
Finch, Trevor 74
Firesides 10, 176
Fischel, Walter 103
Fischer, Michael 85, 107
Fish, Mary 114
Fitzgerald, Michael 44
Forel, Auguste 53, 88
Fozdar, Jamshed 94, 99, 101
French 146
Friedmann, Yohanan 98
Funds 73
G
Gabriel 72
Garden Of Eden 108
Gardner, Martin 95
Garlington, William 56,
64, 101
Garvin, Alexander 96
Gender 70, 74, 75, 80, 88
Genesis 108
Geneva 53
Germany 53, 86
Getsinger, Lua 38, 89
Ghadirian, A. M. 56, 87
Ghaznavi, Agnes 70
Giachery, Ugo 46, 78, 112
Gillespie, Dizzy 46
Glist, Paul 90
God 7, 8, 13, 65, 71, 75, 79, 80, 81, 110, 115, 159
|
Gollmer, Ulrigh 100
Golpaygani Memorandum 86
Goodall Cooper, Ella 37, 89
Goodall, Helen 89
Gouvion, Collette 7, 63, 78
Government 9
Greek 87, 93
Gregory, Louis 53, 96
Grundy, Julia 37, 89
Guardian 10, 40, 42, 59, 111
Guardianship 40, 41, 59, 176
Gurdjieff 105
Guyana 10
H
Hacker, Barbara 67
Haifa 38, 78, 111, 174
Hainsworth, Philip 7, 84, 113
Haiti 173
Haj Mehdi Arjmand 111
Hakim-Samandari, Christine 86
Hampson, Arthur 54, 57
Hands Of The Cause Of God 39, 42, 59, 176
Hanley, Paul 44
Hanna, Nabila 94
Hanson, Holly 114
Harmsen, Rick 109
Hart, Kerry 46
Hassall, Graham 45, 52, 56, 59
Hatcher, John 43, 45, 65, 70, 75, 77, 80, 81, 88, 111, 116
Hatcher-Kennedy, Sharon 70
Hatcher, William 7, 25, 35, 66, 68, 76, 82, 85, 88, 92, 96,
100, 109, 110, 113, 114, 152
Haydar-'Alí, Haji Mírzá 89
Hayden, Robert 45
Health 76
Heaven 8, 43
Hebrew 93, 95
Hegel 88
Heggie, James 50, 99, 101, 103
Hein, Kurt 113, 114
Hell 8, 43
Hellaby, Medaline 69, 92
Heller, Wendy 53
Hermeneutics 19, 77, 111
Hermes Trismegistus 116
Herrman, Duanne 46, 70
Hick, John 97
Hillenbrand, Carole 50
Hinduism 68, 92, 94, 101, 102, 105, 111, 160
Historiography 77, 88
History 1, 13, 19, 42, 57, 77, 81, 97
Hofman, David 112
Holley, Horace 96, 114
Hollinger, Richard 38, 40, 41, 55, 112
Holy Days 10, 62, 71, 107, 176
Hoonaard, Will C. van den 19, 55, 86
Hopson, Eliane 38
House Of Justice 39, 42, 62, 176
Houses Of Worship 10, 44, 46, 55, 56, 58, 173
Huart, Clement 146
Huddleston, John 7, 35, 66, 84, 90
Huggins, Janet 75
Human Rights 84
Humanity 8, 9, 79, 84, 115, 117
Huqúqu'lláh 73, 74
Huxley, Aldous 97
Hyde-Dunn, Clara 52
I
Imám 46, 87
Independent Investigation Of Truth 68
India 39, 52, 56, 58, 64, 173
Infallibility 42, 111
Inheritance 80
Institutions 39
International Bahá'í Bureau 53
Internet 33, 163-169
Interpretation 77, 99, 110, 111
Ioas, Leroy 112
Iran 10, 23, 24, 39, 45, 48,49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 57, 58, 60, 64, 70, 75, 78, 85, 86, 89, 90, 173
Iraq 10, 89, 102
Ishqábád 56
Ishráqát 176
Islam 49, 50, 72, 82, 88, 92, 95, 93, 101, 102, 109, 116, 160
Israel 78, 89, 103, 111
J
Jack, Marion 53
Jainism 102
James, William 68
Japan 10, 57
Jasion, Jan 56
Jeffords, Raymod 79
Jensen, Mehri-Samandari 70
Jews 10, 23, 57, 108, 111, 159
Jihád 84
Johnson, K. Paul 24, 105
Jordan, Dan 67, 114
Jouvion, Philippe 7, 63, 78
Judaism 49, 92, 102, 103, 160
Thomas, June Manning 117
Jung, C. G. 97
Justice 69, 73, 80, 113
K
Kahn, Annie 94
Kalinowski, Michael 67
Kansas 55
Karbilá 87
Karch, Olin 94
Kazemzadeh, Firuz 47, 151, 152
Keene, James 64
Kennedy, andrew 70
Khavari, Khalil 69
Kheiralla, Ibrahim 55
Khursheed, Anjam 110, 117
Kiribati 10
Kitáb-i-Aqdas 33, 40, 62, 75, 80, 88, 91, 95, 175
Kitáb-i-Íqán 15, 47, 50, 62, 77, 111, 176
Knowledge 68, 80
Kolstoe, John 63
Korea 10
Krishna 8, 56, 101
Krug, Florian 37
Kubala, Tom 46, 79
L
Labib, Muhammad 85
Lalonde, Roxanne 67, 117
Lamb, Susan 70
Lambden, Steven 47, 61, 76, 102, 103, 109, 110, 111, 115, 113
Land, George 110
Language 9, 43, 92, 159
Laszlo, Ervin 110
Latin America 10, 24, 52, 58
Laws 63, 80
Lawson, Todd 48, 49
Leach, Bernard 44, 45
Leadership 9
Lee, Anthony 56, 75, 84, 86, 109, 113
Lee, Kathy 84
Lerche, Charles 66, 69, 80, 83, 84, 91, 114, 117
Lesser Peace 43, 82, 83
Leys, Colin 91
Liberation Theology 116, 160
Life-After-Death 43, 105
Lincoln, A. L. 90
Literary art 45, 77
Literature 10, 44, 45, 79
Livingston, James 15
Local And National Bahá'í Governing Bodies 10
Local Spiritual Assemblies 9, 10, 39, 42, 173, 176
Locke, Kevin 90, 104, 174
Loehle, Craig 67, 76, 93, 110
M
Mahmúd-i-Zarghání 54
Ma'súmián, Farnaz 43, 82
Ma'sumián, Bijan 115
Ma'ani, Baharieh 53, 75
MacEoin, Denis 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 58, 85, 87, 92, 95, 108, 109, 151, 152
Mahávíra 102
Mahmoudi, Hoda 68, 69, 75
Mahmudnezhad, Mona 173
Mahyad, Zaerpoor 117
Maid Of Heaven 72
Maitreya 98
Malaysia 57
Mandaeans 105
Maneck, Susan. See Stiles-Maneck, Susan
Manekji 58
Manichaeism 103
Manifestations 7, 8, 10, 13, 37, 39, 61, 63, 64, 65, 76, 79, 80, 81, 88, 97, 100, 102, 103, 104, 107, 108, 115, 177
Manocha, Inder 44
Marconi, Eno 45
Marks, Geoffrey 61
Marriage 9, 69, 96, 107
Marsella, Elena Maria 93, 95
Martin, Douglas 7, 25, 35, 83, 85, 86, 87, 98, 100
Martyrdom 72, 85, 87, 95
Marxism 66, 78, 85, 91, 113, 160
Mashriqu'l-Adhkár 79
Matthews, Gary 93
May, Dann 77, 97, 98, 111, 117
Mcglinn, Sen 75, 78, 83, 91
Mclaughlin, Robert 62
Mclean, Jack 45, 68, 82, 92, 100, 114, 116
McMullen, Mike 96
Medicine 76, 82
Meditation 91
Mehrabkhani, Ruhulla 85
Metaphysics 55, 68, 76, 88
Middle East 58, 84, 101, 159
Militancy 85
Miller, William 87
Mishkín-Qalam 45
Mitchell, Glenford 112
Moayyad, Heshmat 51, 102
Momen, Moojan 7, 15, 35, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 56, 58, 60, 61, 68, 75, 78, 81, 82, 94, 97, 99, 100, 101, 102, 109, 114, 116, 152
Momen, Wendi 7, 35, 92, 95
Money 9, 73
Monjazeb, Shahrokh 84
Montreal 56
Morality 66, 67, 69, 80
Mormonism 92, 94, 103, 104
Morocco 86
Morrison, Gayle 38, 40, 96
Moses 8, 102
Most Great Peace 82, 83
Motlagh, Hugh 43, 94
Mottahedeh, Roy 54
Mount Carmel 78, 89
Muhammad 849, 50, 51, 72, 87, 98, 101, 102, 159, 160
Mundy, Blue 94
Music 8, 44, 46, 67
Muslims 23, 57, 70, 71, 82, 91, 92, 100, 101, 105, 160
Mysticism 65, 72, 81, 82
Mythology 108
Myths 13, 82
N
Nabíl-i-Zarandí 47, 51, 145, 176, 182
Nakhjavání, Bahíyyih 58, 68
Nanak, Guru 106
Nash, Geoffrey 78, 86
National Spiritual Assemblies 9, 10, 39, 42, 177
Native Americans 81, 92, 94, 104, 173, 174
Nature 65, 110
Naw-Rúz 71, 72
Nazis 86
New Age 75, 104, 105
New World Order 82, 88, 90, 105
New York 173
Nicolas, A. L. M. 48, 146
Nietzsche, Freidrich 88
Nigosian, Solomon 57
Nikjoo, Hushang 67
Noah 102
North America 38, 52, 54, 55, 90, 75
Numbers Of Babi Martyrs 87
Numerology 95
Numrich, Paul 57, 153
O
O'Neil, Linda 70, 75 |
Obligatory Prayers 8
Occultism 94, 95, 105
Oeming Badiee, Julie 45
Oneness 9, 96
Ouspensky, P. D. 105
P
Pacific Islands 10, 24, 52, 59
Palestine 10, 37
Parrinder, Geoffrey 70
Parry, Robert 89
Parsons, Agnes 38
Pascoe, Julie 75
Patriotism 9
Peace 9, 45, 60, 67, 83, 88, 95, 113, 174
Penn, Michael 97
Perkins, Mary 7
Perry, Mark 96
Persecution 8, 58, 60, 85, 87, 90
Persian 48, 49, 46
Phelps, Myron 37, 89
Philosophy 88, 97, 115, 159
Pilgrimage 78, 89
Pioneering 89
Plans 2, 9, 10, 59, 60, 89, 111
Plato 88
Pluralism 97, 98, 116
Poetry 45
Poirier, Brent 41
Politics 19, 39, 90
Poostchi, Iraj 44
Pound, Ezra 45
Poverty 73, 113
Praxis 48
Prayer 7, 8, 10, 70, 71, 76, 91, 107
Principles, Bahá'í 9, 92
Progressive Revelation 92, 107, 108, 160, 161,
Prophecy 92
Provisional translations, defined 33
Psychic phenomena and the paranormal 94, 105
Psychology 82, 84, 87, 95
Publishing 9, 10
Q
Qá'im 46
Qabbalah 95
Queen Marie 53
Quinn, Jalalíyyih 45
Qur'án, The 49, 50, 51, 72, 77, 102, 105, 111, 160
R
Rabbani, Rúhíyyih 69, 90, 112, 173, 174
Race 9, 96, 113, 117
Racism 45, 74
Radio 10, 114
Rafati, Vahid 49, 52, 53
Raman, Pattabi 67, 101, 113
Rathbone, Eliza 45
Rawlings, Felicity 101
REFER 33, 182, 184
Reincarnation 43, 97, 160
Revelation 9, 37, 67, 68, 72, 81, 97, 107, 110, 159
Ridván 72
Ricklefs, Randy 95
Riggs, Robert 93, 95
Ritual 10, 13, 15, 63, 71, 73, 107
Robiati, Giuseppe 66
Roesch, Ronald 84, 95
Romania 53
Roohizadegan, Olya 86
Rosenfeld, Robert 63
Rost, H. T. D. 66, 69
Rubinstein, Donald 52
Ruhe, David 61, 78
Rulers and Learned 38, 41
Rumi 134
Russell, Jane 74
Russia 56
Russian 86
Rutstein, Nathan 64, 67, 96
S
Sabaeans 105, 106
Sabet, Huschmad 84, 100
Sabri, Shirin 45
Sacred Writings 42
Sacrifice 86, 87
Safavid Dynasty 50
Sahbá, Faríburz 46
Saiedi, Nader 68, 84
Samandarí, Tarázu'lláh 89
Satan 112
Savi, Julio 65, 76, 79, 81, 92, 107, 116
Schaefer, Udo 69, 81, 83, 98, 100, 102, 105, 107, 111, 116
Scholarship 60, 68, 98, 109
Scholl, Steven 77, 102
Schools 9, 10, 79, 110
Schuon, Frithjof 97
Schweitz, Martha 74, 80
Science 8, 68, 88, 110
Scripture 8, 10, 37, 60, 111
Seals and Crofts 46
Sears, William 41, 86, 94
Seow, Jimmy 57
Sexuality 69, 70
Sháh-Bahrám 106
Shaykhism 49, 51, 52
Shepard, Raymond 67
Shíí Islam 10, 23, 50, 57, 87, 95
Shíráz 78, 89, 173
Shoghi Effendi 10, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 46, 47, 49, 58, 59, 60, 62, 64, 77, 111, 177
Shook, Glenn 82, 95
Sikhism 106
Sims, Barbara 57
Sin 112, 108, 115
Singapore 57
Singh, Raj 106
Smith, Peter 7, 15, 23, 24, 25, 35, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55, 58, 60, 64, 77, 93, 97, 103, 152, 189
Smoking 69, 70, 81
Social issues 9, 10, 60, 69, 80, 90, 104, 113
Sociology 1, 9, 13, 19, 44, 71, 77
Soul 8, 43, 79
Sours, Michael 62, 67, 72, 77, 94, 99, 100, 111
South Africa 96
South America 59, 173
Soviet Union 24, 52, 53, 56, 84, 86
Spinoza 89
Spiritual Assemblies 39, 62, 177
Spirituality 8, 9, 46, 50, 67, 69, 82, 88, 96, 105, 114, 115
Sprague, Sidney 56
Stalin, Joseph 56
Stendardo, Luigi 53
Stephens, Kenneth 94, 103
Stiles-Maneck, Susan 23, 53, 58, 64, 75, 103, 106, 107
Stockman, Robert 3, 24, 46, 53, 54, 55, 63, 64, 77, 100, 104, 159, 163
Stoddard, Susan 67
Storch, Juanita 37, 38
Streets, Donald 67
Sudan 10
Sufism 92, 101, 102
Sunní Islam 10, 50
Symbolism 50, 82, 111
Syria 10
T
Ta'eed, Lata 75
Taherzadeh, Adib 40, 41, 42, 43, 46, 58, 61, 62, 65, 72, 74
Tai-Seale, Thomas 94
Taiwan 57
Tanyi, Enoch 81
Taoism 99, 100, 101
Tax 73
Taylor, Bonnie 96
Teachings 42
Temple 136
Ten Year Crusade 42
Tests And Growth 8, 115
Theatre 45
Theology 48, 70, 81, 88, 97, 115, 116
Theosophy 105
Thomas, Richard 96
Thompson, Juliet 37, 44
Tidman, Marjorie 67, 84
Tobey, Mark 44, 45
Tolstoy, Leo 53, 56
Tonga 10
Towfigh, Ulrigh 100
Townshend, George 104
Truth 68, 92, 116
Tuman, Ludwig 44
Turkey 10, 78
Tuvalu 10
U
Ullman, Chana 64
United States 24, 39, 54, 58
United States Bahá'í National Center 40
Unity 65, 82, 90, 116
Unity In Diversity 107, 116, 117
Universal House Of Justice 9, 10, 24, 33, 39, 41, 42, 43, 60, 73, 177
V
Vader, John Paul 53
Vegetarianism 76
Vick, Holly Hanson 114
Vietnam 84
Vivekananda 24, 105
Vreeland, Claire 90
W
Waite, Gary 85
Walbridge, John 70, 72, 74, 75, 80, 82, 89, 92
Walbridge, Linda 75, 80, 108
Walter, S. 98
War 45, 83, 84, 86, 93
Warburg, Margit 53, 56, 73
Ward, Allan 38, 54
Wealth 73, 92, 113
Weaver, Craig 118
Weixelman, Joseph 104
Wells, Bruce 82
White, Robert 45, 67
Whitehead, O. Z. 55
Whitmore, Bruce 55, 79
Wilcox, Patricia 69
Wilkins, Sue 93
Willoya, William 94
Wilmette 10, 55, 58
Wilson, Samuel 98
Winger-Bearskin, Michael 63
Winters, Jonah 3, 87, 99, 163
Wisdom 126, 130
Women 44, 53, 70, 74, 75, 84, 113, 118, 173, 210
Woodman, Ross 44, 45, 62, 72, 88, 109, 112
Work 9, 65, 71, 118
World Order 39
Worldly Leadership 140
Writings 33, 45, 62, 111, 112, 177
Y
Yazd 85, 107
Yoga 92
Young Turks 37
Z
Zamenhof, Lidia 53, 86
Zarghání, Mahmud 52
Zaynu'l-Muqarrabin 135
Zen Buddhism 92
Zionism 140
Zohoori, Elias 76
Zoroastrianism 8, 10, 23, 57, 58, 64, 92, 103, 106, 111, 159, 160
Zrudlo 46
|
Index of Journals Cited
Abhá: Journal of Bábí-Bahá'í Studies 181
The American Bahá'í 41
Andalíb 92, 111
Arts Dialogue 114, 179
Bahá'í News 38
Bahá'í Studies (monograph series) 76, 82, 107, 113, 104, 209
Bahá'í Studies Bulletin 45, 47, 48, 51, 52, 55, 58, 61, 63, 76, 77, 82, 84, 85, 88, 89, 102, 103, 109, 110, 111, 113, 115, 116, 151, 181
Bahá'í Studies Notebook 58, 66, 69, 76
Bahá'í Studies Review 44, 52, 53, 56, 69, 70, 72, 74, 75, 77, 78, 80, 81, 83, 91, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102, 104, 108, 109, 111, 151, 179
Bahá'í World 44, 46, 57, 59, 67, 71, 75, 82, 86, 87, 88
Deepen 40, 41, 82, 95, 101, 104, 109, 112, 115, 182
dialogue 75, 80, 90, 96, 110, 182
Encyclopedia Britannica 7, 15, 57, 153
Encyclopaedia Iranica 7, 48, 53, 57, 97, 153
Encyclopedia of Islam 7, 48, 57, 153
Encyclopedia of Religion 57, 154
Harper's 93, 151
|
Herald of the South 180
History Today 85, 151
International Journal Middle East Studies 47, 48, 51, 61, 91, 95, 108, 152
Iranian Studies 48
Jewish Review 103
Jewish Social Studies 103
Journal of the American Oriental Society 51, 152
Journal of Bahá'í Studies 40, 44, 45, 46, 49, 53, 55, 56, 58, 59, 61, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 84, 85, 87, 88, 89, 90, 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 107, 109, 110, 111, 114, 116, 117, 153, 179
Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 64, 93, 152
Moslem World 98, 106
One Country 183
Poetics Today 77
Reality Magazine 55
Religion 60, 64, 85, 88, 92, 110, 151, 152
Skeptical Inquirer 95
Social Compass 73
Star of the West87, 96
Studia Iranica 49, 50, 95
World Order37, 38, 44, 45, 46, 47, 51,
52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 66, 67, 68, 74, 75, 77, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 90, 95, 96, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 113, 114, 153, 181
|
|
Site Map