Through their appearance the Revelation of God is made
manifest, and by their countenance the Beauty of God is revealed. Thus it
is that the accents of God Himself have been uttered by these
Manifestations of God [. . .] Know of a certainty that in every
Dispensation the light of Divine Revelation hath been vouchsafed unto men
in direct proportion to their spiritual capacity. -
Bahá'u'lláh (1862)
If the religions are true it is because each time it is God who has
spoken, and if they are different it is because God has spoken in
different "languages" in conformity with the receptacles. Finally, if they
are absolute and exclusive, it is because in each of them God has said
"I". - Frithjof Schuon (1963)
Revelation . . . is a Divine communication shaped to the interests and
values of a particular society at a particular time . . . Divine
communication might not be perfectly received and understood . . . either
by the original recipient or by others who transmit and interpret it
later. Bearing these two features in mind, one might think that God will
communicate different things to different peoples, and will in all
probability be able to communicate more of the ultimate Divine purpose to
some people than to others. - Keith Ward (1995)
Contents
Preface
Introduction
I. Background
1. The religious context
2. The philosophical context
II. Literature Review
III. Methodology
1. Research-questions and hypotheses
2. Methodological problems
A. The Material
B. The Method
IV. Apocalypticism and Dimensions of Revelation
1. Problems of definition
2. A structural approach to revelation
3. Dimensions of revelation
4. Apocalypticism and revelation operationalized
V. Bahá'í Apocalypticism
1. Theology - the source of revelation
2. Cosmology - the instrument of revelation
3. Universal and Specific Revelation - two means of revelation
A. Universal Revelation
B. Specific Revelation
4. Prophetology - the mediation of revelation
A. The Prophets, Messengers, or Manifestations of God
B. The nature of the Manifestation of God
C. The Manifestation of God between God and man
D. The Manifestation of God as Educators and Physicians
VI. The Concept of Progressive Revelation
1. Texts of Identification - the esoteric dimension
A. Identification with previous Manifestations of God
B. Identification with God
C. The Identity of the Manifestations of God
2. Texts of Elaboration - the exoteric dimension
A. The rise and fall of a religion
B. The continuity and succession of religions
C. The differences between the Manifestations of God
and the concept of progress
D. The cyclical scheme
E. The Bahá'í Cycle and the concept of progress
VII. Summary and Conclusions
VIII. Discussion
Appendices
I. Bahá'í Apocalypticism - The Vertical Axis
II. Progressive Revelation - The Horizontal Axis
III. Progress or decline?
Abbreviations of Sources
Bibliography
|
Preface
The present study is purely a structural and ahistorical approach
to Bahá'í-apocalypticism and the concept of progressive
revelation, but I am fully aware of the importance of studying the
possible origins and influences (religious and philosophical) pertinent to
this field. However, it was necessary to limit the scope of this master's
thesis (licentiats uppsats), and since my research in this area is
still incomplete, I have decided to more fully examine this vital section
in my Ph.D. dissertation. Consequently, the forthcoming Ph.D. dissertation
will complement this structural approach with a general historical
criticism. I will then make a preliminary investigation of the possible
historical influences on the concept of progressive revelation from
various religious (e.g., the concepts of revelation and prophetology in
Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, Mandeism, Manichaeism,
Islám, and Bábism) and philosophical traditions and contexts
(especially the
idea of progress in Europe during the 18-19th centuries).
Chapter 1
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to systematically and structurally
investigate a specific and central apocalyptic idea of the
Bahá'í-religion the concept of progressive revelation.
The concept of progressive revelation is thereby seen as incorporated into a
much greater and coherent system of apocalyptic ideas that of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism. This system is, in turn, subordinate to
the Bahá'í-religion and the general study of apocalypticism.
In the first major part of this thesis, the general field of apocalypticism and
the various dimensions of revelation will be introduced. The second major part
Bahá'í-apocalypticism will introduce some
important and pertinent areas to the concept of progressive revelation.
Consequently, areas such as theology, cosmology, and prophetology, will be
included and discussed, since it is possible to locate in them not only the
overall framework for the concept of progressive revelation, but because they
either tacitly, or implicitly, express various conceptual metaphors,
structures, axes, and dimensions, which are associated with this concept. The
third major part of this thesis examines the concept of progressive revelation
by discerning specific and related key terms, concepts, metaphors, structures,
axes, and dimensions, which ultimately are correlated to the general field of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism. Finally, issues like the finality of
revelation and the "Seal of the Prophets" are analyzed and discussed.
Before going into detail into Bahá'í'-apocalypticism and the
concept of progressive revelation, it is necessary to briefly: review the
general background of the Bahá'í-religion (Ch. II), survey some
related studies (Ch. III), examine the methodology (Ch. IV), and the field of
apocalypticism (Ch.V).
I. Background
The title of this thesis is Bahá'í Apocalypticism: the
Concept of Progressive Revelation. Thus, the key terms for this study are:
Bahá'í, apocalypticism/revelation, and the concept of
progress.[1] The first two areas
naturally fall within the study of religion whereas the third areas rather
pertain more to philosophy or the study of history of ideas. Further, the idea
of progress is also often associated with fields such as evolution, science,
and technology.[2] Without attempting to
define or operationalize the terms "apocalypticism," "revelation" or "progress"
here, it may be useful to make a tentative distinction between: 1)
religious writings on apocalypticism and ideas of progress (the
religious context), 2) philosophical writings on apocalypticism and
ideas of progress (the philosophical context), and 3) the scholarly
study of these two fields (the scholarly context). The historical origins of
the religious and philosophical contexts are rather obscure and difficult to
ascertain, but scholars have attempted to locate apocalyptic themes in, e.g.,
the ancient Egyptian and Iranian religions,[3] and ideas of progress in ancient
Greek
philosophy and mythology.[4] However, in
dealing with the concept of progressive revelation and its general background,
it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between religious and philosophical
works. For example, there are works that are of a more religious nature
and which allude to the idea of progress,[5] and there are philosophical
works
that contain features of apocalypticism.[6] Moreover, the scholarly studies
of these two areas are, in comparison, fairly recent phenomena.
Although these important areas are beyond the scope of this thesis, there are
two important historical events, or contexts, which are necessary to
highlight and which emerged contemporaneously with the birth of the
Bahá'í-religion. Consequently, they will function as a general
frame of reference for the present study. The first event is located within the
religious context and the second within the philosophical context.
1. The religious context
The Bahá'í-religion has its roots in the land of todays Iran (the
ancient Persia), which is associated with at least one great prophet
Zarathustra. His name has subsequently been connected with, and given rise to,
a world-religion Zoroastrianism. Although scholars disagree upon the
exact dating of Zarathustra, Zoroastrianism was once a state religion of three
great Iranian empires.[7] The apocalyptic
idea of the Saoshyant, or future "world saviour," is an especially
noteworthy concept to the religious context of this thesis.[8] However,
Zoroastrianism has, since the
7th century CE, been largely replaced and dominated by another great world
religion Islám. More precisely, it has since the 16th century
CE been under the minority branch of Islám Shí'ah
("Twelver-Shí'ia").[9] In turn,
Shí'i Islám consists of a variety of bifurcations that have
sprung from this branch.[10] Mary Boyce
makes in this context an interesting observation regarding the apocalyptic
relationship between Zoroastrianism and Shí'i Islám:
The Shí'i also found a figure to replace,
in their hopes and longings, that of the Saoshyant. Bitterly disillusioned by
the failure of the 'Abbasids to restore the caliphate to the descendants of
'Ali, they continued to regard the latter as the true imams or leaders,
attributing them by virtue of their lineage and especial divine grace . . . Of
the nine imams descended from Husayn . . . eight died violent deaths; but the
last was held to have disappeared miraculously, in 878 [sic]. He is the
'hidden', or 'expected' imam, who will, like the Saoshyant, appear at the end
of time, restore faith, and fill the earth with justice.[11]
During the middle of the 19th century prophetic expectations gradually peaked
in the awaiting of the appearance of the "hidden imam,"
"al-Qá'im" or "al-Mahdi."[12] This was
especially the case among adherents of the Shaykhi-movement and which
subsequently created a fertile ground for the claim of the Báb[13] in
1844 and the emergence of the
Bábí-religion.[14] Almost
as soon as the múllas (Islámic clergy) were informed of the
claims of the Báb, they arose in violent opposition throughout Persia to
what they saw as heretical teachings. Consequently, growing attacks from mobs
were instigated by the múllas and persecutions of the
Bábís were common place.[15] The dispensation of the Báb
was
very short-lived and lasted only six years. In 1850, in an episode reminiscent
of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, the Báb was martyred together with a
disciple by two firing squads each numbering 750 soldiers.[16]
According to the Bahá'ís,[17] the Báb's claim as the "hidden
imám" is also seen the historical starting point of their religion, but
although the two religions are seen as distinct, they are nonetheless seen as
intimately connected. For example, in his major doctrinal work, the
Bayán,[18] the Báb had made
many allusions and prophecies about "Him Whom God will make manifest."[19]
Bahá'u'lláh[20] was an early and distinguished disciple
of the Báb. After the Báb's martyrdom Bahá'u'lláh
undertook a journey to the holy places of Iráq, and when arriving to
Tihrán (1852), he became aware that a group of fanatical
Bábís had, in the wrath of revenge of the Báb's martyrdom,
tried to assassinate the ruling emperor, Násiri'd-Dín
Sháh. However, the attempt failed and the assassins were instantly
killed. The assassination resulted in that many Bábís were either
directly martyred, or first put in jail, only to be executed later. A few
months later Bahá'u'lláh was also arrested and imprisoned in the
notorious Síyáh-Chál ("Black Pit") in Tihrán. It
was here were he had his first intimations of revelation (1852).[21] Since
Bahá'u'lláh
descended from a noble lineage he was spared execution but was, together with
his family and followers, alternately banished and imprisoned throughout the
Ottoman Empire (Iráq, Turkey, and Palestine/Israel). In Baghdád
(1863), eleven years after his revelatory experience in the Síyáh
Chál, Bahá'u'lláh proclaimed to be the one promised by the
Báb. He is therefore seen as the founder of the
Bahá'í-religion and hence its name.[22] Concerning the above stated
passage by
Boyce, it is also significant that Bahá'u'lláh eventually also
claimed to be the promised one in both Zoroastrianism (the return of
Sháh Bahrám Varjávand) and Shí'í
Islám (the return of Imám Husayn).[23]
Before he passed away in Palestine/Israel (1892), Bahá'u'lláh
appointed, in his will and testament, his eldest son, 'Abdu'l-Bahá[24] to be
the interpreter and head of the
young Bahá'í-community. It was 'Abdu'l-Bahá who brought
the Bahá'í-religion to the Middle East and the West through his
journeys to Egypt, Europe, and America (1911-1913). He, in his turn, appointed
Shoghi Effendi,[25] the great grandson of
Bahá'u'lláh, as the "Guardian" of the
Bahá'í-community. Shoghi Effendi was educated in English
literature at the American University in Beirut and Balliol College, Oxford.[26] In
addition, he also translated and
interpreted major works of both Bahá'u'lláh and
'Abdu'l-Bahá, wrote a historical overview of the religion's first
hundred years (1844-1944),[27] and
administered the growing world-religion until he passed away in London
(1957).[28] Bahá'u'lláh,
'Abdu'l-Bahá, and Shoghi Effendi are the three principal authors of the
Bahá'í-religion, and their collected works are therefore
essential to an analysis of Bahá'í-apocalypticism and the concept
of progressive revelation.
2. The philosophical context
Above one can see that the Bahá'í-authors' lives span over almost
two centuries (1817-1957) and, in addition, their combined travels stretched
over geographical areas like Persia, the Near and Middle East, Africa, Europe,
and North America. It is therefore important to briefly mention some early and
contemporary notions of the concept of progressive revelation that may have
influenced their writings. For example, in the middle part of the 18th century
both Gotthold E. Lessing (1729-1781) and Edward Gibbon (1737-1794) wrote on the
theme of progress or decline. The former wrote a pamphlet entitled Education of
the Human Race (1780), and the latter wrote the monumental The History of the
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776-88). Although both authors may be of
interest, it is the former who apparently wrote about a few themes that will
subsequently be examined in this thesis. In his classical work The Idea of
Progress (1920), J. B. Bury writes about Lessing as follows:
The thesis is that the drama of history is to be
explained as the education of man by a progressive series of religions, a
series not yet complete, for the future will produce another revelation to lift
him to a higher plane than that to which Christ has drawn him up. This
interpretation of history proclaimed Progress, but assumed an ideal and applied
a measure very different from those of the French philosophers. The goal is not
social happiness, but a full comprehension of God.[29]
Later on in this thesis it will be discovered that themes like "education," "a
progressive series of religions," "a series not yet complete," and "a higher
plane," are central key terms and concepts to
Bahá'í-apocalypticism and the concept of progressive revelation.
Concurrently with the above stated messianic fervor of the middle of the 19th
century, Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species (1859) established the
evolutionary paradigm that, throughout the consecutive decades, revolutionized
almost every field of endeavor in the Western world. Moreover, it was also the
century which many new sciences saw the light of day, e.g., Sociology,
Psychology, and the Science of Religion, or Religionswissenschaft.[30] In this
context it is also interesting
that Eric J. Sharpe writes that:
The decade from 1859 to 1969 witnessed the rapid
development of an entirely new situation in the world religious study, a
situation over which may be set as a rubric one word, 'evolution'. [. . . ]
Might divine revelation itself be progressive, and might it be capable of
interpretation on evolutionary principles? These were important questions, and
they fascinated the late nineteenth century. [. . . ] an attempt was beginning
to be made to view religion on the criteria provided by science, to judge the
history and growth and evolution as one would judge the history, growth and
evolution of any organism . . .[31]
The question "Might divine revelation itself be progressive" can be seen as the
basic question of not only this thesis, but can also be seen as a challenge to
any religion that defends not only exclusivity but, above all, the idea of
finality of revelation. Moreover, the themes of "history," "growth," and
"evolution of any organism" are all highly applicable key terms for the present
study, since they are replete with organic metaphors. Thus, it can be seen that
the idea of progress is not a new concept in the history but, when it was
coupled with the evolutionary paradigm, it witnessed a new renaissance and
strongly influenced the newly born field of Science of Religion. Consequently,
titles like Edward Caird's (1902) The Evolution of Religion were in the
ascendance since the 1860's and flourished even into the next century. An
excerpt from his book will conclude this introduction, not only since it is
contemporary with the Bahá'í-religion, but because it contains
some very salient key terms and concepts that shall be develop in this
thesis:
[ . . .] the unity of mankind must for our
purpose be interpreted as involving not only the identity of human nature in
all its various manifestations in all nations and countries, but also as
implying that in their co-existence these manifestations can be connected
together as different correlated phases of one life, and that in their
succession they can be shown to be the necessary stages of one process of
evolution. The conception of development is thus a corollary which cannot be
disjoined from the principle of the unity of man itself. [ . . . ] the life of
the individual is a sort of epitome of the history of humanity . . . all the
stages of animal life are reproduced in the development of the human embryo. .
. The history of the individual mind cannot be used by itself, at least in the
first instance, as a key to the history of the race, but rather his life
becomes intelligible by means of the large letters in which its stages are
written in the life of mankind as a whole.[32]
The key terms and concepts of interest here are "the unity of mankind," the
themes of "succession" and "stages of one process of evolution," and finally,
the general scheme of a macro/microcosmos relationship, here depicted in that
the history of mankind and the development of human beings are seen as organic
parallels. These themes shall be discussed during and at the end of this
thesis.
Chapter 2
II. Literature review
This chapter addresses in brief the third area discussed above the
scholarly context. Yet, a literature review of apocalyptic studies in other
fields will not be included here, but it may suffice to say that the field of
apocalypticism has recently been revisited. The International Colloquium on
Apocalypticism,[33] held in Uppsala 1979,
testifies to this, as do the reprinting of old titles and the publishing of new
themes of revelation.[34] It is perhaps
no surprise that scholars of the Bahá'í-religion was absent at
the International Colloquium on Apocalypticism. There are least three reasons
for this. First, the Bahá'í-religion, despite its geographical
spread,[35] is still relatively unknown,
both among the general population and in the academic world. Secondly, although
there have been quite a few scholarly studies in various areas of the
Bahá'í-religion, there have been very few scholarly studies
pertaining to the study of Bahá'í-apocalypticism. Third, since
the Bahá'í-religion is fairly unrecognized in the academic
sphere, most scholarly research is being conducted and published by the
Bahá'ís themselves, even though there are, and has been, a few
notable exceptions.[36]
The following studies, however, have all been conducted by
Bahá'ís, and in general, they represent some disparate dimensions
of Bahá'í-apocalypticism. One such study is the monumental study
of Adib Taherzadeh's (1974-87) The Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh
(vol.'s 1-4) which primarily focuses on the textual level, or the content of
revelation and its historical development, i.e., what did
Bahá'u'lláh write where and when? This type of research could be
classified as an historical content-analysis, although it is more descriptive
than analytical. Taherzadeh also includes some interesting passages of an
eye-witness who has recorded the process of the actual writing down of
revelation, and references to how the writings of Bahá'u'lláh
have been classified into specific genres.[37] Taherzadeh has furthermore
translated
some original writings from Persian and Arabic to English.
The only academic pursuits to the study of Bahá'í-apocalypticism
are Hugh Adamson's (1974) The Concept of Revelation in Islam and
Bahá'í, and Nicola Towfigh's (1989) Schöpfung und
Offenbarung aus der Sicht der Bahá'í-Religion. The former is a M.
A. thesis which is a general survey of the Muslim- and
Bahá'í-concepts of revelation. However, the concept of
progressive revelation is only dealt with in a cursory fashion. This approach
to the study of Bahá'í-apocalypticism could be described as
comparative. The latter study is a Ph.D. dissertation and is to date the most
scholarly and comprehensive research in the field of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism. It not only gives a preliminary
introduction to the relationship between God, creation (schöpfung) and
revelation (offenbarung), but it further discusses these
Bahá'í-concepts from the background of Islámic theology
and philosophy. Moreover, Towfigh's dissertation also contains some relevant
original (Arabic/Persian) texts by the Báb, Bahá'u'lláh,
and 'Abdu'l-Bahá, which have been translated into German by the author.
This type of study could be classified as mainly a philological and conceptual
approach to Bahá'í-apocalypticism. However, the concept of
progressive revelation has in this study been treated tentatively and is
therefore far from exhausted.
Finally, one important study, and which is significant for this thesis, is S.
Fazel and K. Fananapazir's (1993) A Bahá'í Approach to the Claim
of Finality in Islam. This paper centers on the issues of finality and the
"Seal of Prophets" that will be discussed at the end of this thesis. However,
Fazel and Fananapazir's paper may be classified primarily as an apologetic
approach to Bahá'í-apocalypticism.
Consequently, the above approaches to Bahá'í-apocalypticism
classify as either textual, historical, comparative, philological, conceptual,
or apologetic, and none of them have systematically studied the various
structural levels of Bahá'í-apocalypticism or focused
specifically on the concept of progressive revelation. Thus, the present study
is the first attempt to address and fulfill this need.
Chapter 3
III. Methodology
In this section some methodological issues that are relevant for this thesis
will be surveyed.
1. Research-questions and hypotheses
Research-questions:
- What is Bahá'í-apocalypticism in general?
- How is it possible for the Bahá'í-religion to view
revelation (religion) as successive, continuous and progressive while
originating in a religious context (Islám) which claims that Muhammad
is the "Seal of the Prophets" and that revelation is final?
- Is the concept of progressive revelation a central concept,
principle, or theme, in the Bahá'í-religion?
- What is progressive revelation? What are some of its distinct
features and dimensions?
Hypotheses:
- Bahá'í-apocalypticism in general has a
multidimensional structure, e.g., hierarchical, horizontal, vertical,
exoterical, and esoterical.
- Issues like the "Seal of the Prophets" and finality of revelation
are, according to the Bahá'í-authors, ultimately a matter of
viewpoint and interpretation (esoteric/exoteric). Thus, the
Bahá'í-authors upholds the that the "Seal of the Prophets" and
the finality of revelation are valid from one specific point of view, but they
prefer to interpret these issues from within the concept of progressive
revelation, especially within the cyclical scheme.
- Progressive revelation is a central concept, principle, and theme,
in the Bahá'í religion. It consists both of an esoteric (texts
of identification) and an exoteric dimension (texts of
elaboration).
- Progressive revelation is an evolutionary concept of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism and which interprets various revelations
(religions) as essentially interconnected, cyclical, and
progressive.
2. Methodological problems
A. The Material
The study of the Bahá'í-religion can in some respect be
advantageous in comparison to the study of the more ancient religions in that:
1) the original and primary sources (Arabic/Persian/English), to a large
extent, have been preserved and are utilized for direct translations, and 2)
the Bahá'í-material, despite the religions young age, is quite
vast.[38] At the same time, however,
there is a frustration and disadvantage in that the great majority of this
material is not yet translated, but efforts are being made to address and solve
this problem.[39]
As was stated in the introduction, Shoghi Effendi was appointed as the
interpreter and translator of the writings of the Báb,
Bahá'u'lláh, and 'Abdu'l-Bahá. The Báb and
Bahá'u'lláh wrote in both Arabic and Persian, whereas
Abdu'l-Bahá mainly wrote in Persian. Moreover, the latter gave lectures
in Persian that were either recorded by stenographic- or ordinary notes, and
which subsequently were translated into English. Due to his American/English
education, Shoghi Effendi naturally translated the original Arabic and Persian
sources into English. Furthermore, due to his long-term correspondence (c.
1922-1957) with the world-wide Bahá'í community in English,
Shoghi Effendi more or less established this as a universal language among the
Bahá'ís.[40] Yet,
Bahá'ís in various countries are not only encouraged, but sees it
as imperative to translate the principal Bahá'í-writings into the
vernacular. However, it should be emphasized that these translations are not
based upon the original Arabic/Persian sources, but are in nearly all cases[41]
based upon either: 1) English primary
sources (Shoghi Effendi's writings), or 2) English secondary sources (usually
translated by Shoghi Effendi). In addition, more than 60% of all published
Bahá'í-literature that has been published in the world is in
English. It is due to these reasons that the material for this thesis is
primary and secondary English sources.[42]
B. The Method
This study is primarily an exegetical approach to
Bahá'í-apocalypticism. However, to systematically and
structurally analyze various dimensions of Bahá'í-apocalypticism
the method which has been preferred for this study is mainly a
"structural-criticism," which is a subordinate field of exegesis.[43] Consequently,
extensive passages by the
Bahá'í-authors have frequently been incorporated into the
main-body of this thesis. These passages have, in turn, been utilized as the
basis for the analysis of significant subjects: key terms, metaphors, concepts,
structures, axes, and dimensions of Bahá'í-apocalypticism. It is
"systematic" in that specific areas, e.g., theology, cosmology, and
prophetology, are sequentially investigated. It is also systematic in that the
Bahá'í-authors' texts in each area is generally dealt with in a
"diachronic" fashion, i.e., first the writings of Bahá'u'lláh,
then 'Abdu'l-Bahá, and finally Shoghi Effendi. It is also systematic
since it has studied these areas in a "synchronic" manner, i.e., some subjects
have been compared both "intra-textually" (within a text, or different texts,
by the same author) and "inter-textually" (between various texts by the three
Bahá'í-authors).
A "key term" is defined as a term which occurs repeatedly and/or is found as
central to a Bahá'í-text. A "metaphor" is a figure of speech
which is based on a pattern of resemblance. The metaphors which are recurrent,
and that have been investigated in various contexts, are commonly of an
astronomic/astrological, or organic, nature where the latter often exhibits
characteristics of growth and progress. Certain regularly employed metaphors
have in this thesis been labeled "models," (e.g., the solar-model and the
seasonal-model). A "concept" can be defined as consisting of different "key
terms". For example, the concept "progressive revelation" consists of two key
terms progress and revelation. However, this concept is, in turn,
also associated with other key terms (e.g., evolution, capacity), or concepts
(e.g., the Manifestation of God). A "structure" is seen as the relationship(s)
between various concepts. Some repeated structures have been designated
"schemes" (e.g., the macro/micro scheme and the cyclical scheme). An "axis" can
also be regarded as a structure but which is associated with a specific
directionality of revelation ("vertical/horizontal"). In turn, a "dimension"
can be said to consist of all the previous mentions subjects, but it generally
points to both the directionality and relationship between of the different
structures. In this thesis the most prevailing dimensions have been defined in
the following bi-polarities ("binary oppositions"): two "vertical/horizontal"
axes, and two "esoteric/exoteric dimensions."[44] Together, the different key
terms,
metaphors (models), concepts, structures (schemes), axes, and dimensions, make
up the overall system of Bahá'í-apocalypticism.
Finally, this method is, on the hand "analytical" in that it discerns certain
explicit units ("surface structures") of the Bahá'í-texts, but it
is, on the other hand also "synthetic" in that it examines various implicit
relationships ("deep structures") between the above mention subjects.[45]
Notes:
[1] It is beyond the scope of this thesis to
fully introduce the historical origins and the development of these areas. For
an introduction to the Bahá'í religion see, Hatcher, W. S. and
Martin, J. D. (1989). For a more in-depth study see, e.g., Balyuzi, H. M.
(1991). For an introduction to the field of revelation see, e.g., Ward. K.
(1994). For an in-depth study of apocalypticism see, e.g., Hellholm, D. (1983).
For an introduction to the ideas of progress see, e.g., Bury, J. B. (1920);
Nisbet, R. (1994); Melzer, A. M., Wein
[2]rger, J. & Zinman, M. R. (1995).
See Hopper, D. H. (1991); Kumar, K. (1978)
[3] See Hellholm, D. (1983)
[4] See Bury, J. (1920)
[5] E.g., Augustine (354-430 AD). The City of God; Baillie, J. (1950). The Belief
in Progres
[6] E.g., Plotinus (205-270 AD). The Enneads; Hegel, G. W. F. (1807).
Phenomenologie des Geistes [The Phenomenology of Mind]; Caird, E. (1902). The
Evolution of Religio
[7] Boyce, M. (1987). p. xiii. Most scholars date the life of Zarathustra c.
700-600 BCE, whereas Boyce is dating him between c. 1700-1500 BCE; see p. 18
[8] Boyce, M. (1987). p. 4
[9] Ithná-'Asharí in Arabic
[10] See e.g., Momen, M. (1985)
[11] Boyce, p. 152. The figure 878 CE appears to be a typographic error since most
authors agree on Imám Hasan al-'Askarí's disappearance 260 AH =
873-74 CE See e.g., Amanat, A. Resurrection and Renewal, p. 10; Momen, M.
(1985). p. 30
[12] al-Qá'im ("the one who will arise" in Arabic), is one of the many
titles of Muhammad al-Mahdí, the Twelfth Imam (al-Mahdí means
"the guided one" in Arabic)
[13] The "Gate," (in Arabic) also known as Siyyid 'Alí-Muhammad
Shirází (1819-1850
[14] The historical development of the Shaykhi-movement or the
Bábí-religion are beyond the scope of this thesis. For a greater
analysis of these areas see e.g., Amanat, A. (1989); Arjomand, S. A. (1984);
Báb (1987); Bayat, M. (1982); Browne, E. G. (1891), (1892), (1918),
(1924); Lawson, B. T. (1987); MacEoin, D. M. (1979); Rafati, V. (1979); and
Sachedina, A. (1981
[15] See e.g., Momen, M. (1981); Vámbéry, H. (1869); Hedin, S.
(1887)
[16] See e.g., Gibb, H. A. R. (1960); Hedin, S. (1887)
[17] See e.g., GPB; Esslemont, J. E. (1980); Hatcher, W. S. and Martin, J. D.
(1989
[18] "Explanation" in Arabic; see Nicolas, A. L. M. (1905) and (1911-1914); and
Báb. (1987
[19] Man-yuzhiruhu'lláh in Persian. The full title of the Qá'im is
Qá'im-i-Ál-i-Muhammad which is translated as "He who shall arise
of the family of Muhammad." The relationship between the Qá'im and "Him
whom God shall make manifest" is rather intricate and complex. "The Báb
declared Himself to be the Qá'im and also the Gate (Báb) to a
greater divine messenger, 'Him Whom God Shall Make Manifest'." Momen, W.
(1991). p. 19
[20] The "Glory of God" (in Arabic) also known as Mirza
Husayn-'Alí-i-Núrí (1817-1892
[21] See GPB, p. 101-102; WOB, p. 31
[22] The word "Bahá'í" ("a follower of Bahá") is derived from
Arabic and is the name of both the religion and an adherent of this religion
[23] Buck, C. (1986)
[24] "Servant of Bahá" (in Arabic) also known as 'Abbás Effendi
(1844-1921
[25] Also known as Shoghi Rabbáni (1897-1957
[26] It should be noted that Shoghi Effendi's style of writing was highly
influenced especially by: E. Gibbon's (1737-1794) The History of the Decline
and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776-78), and King's James' Bible
[27] Effendi, S. (1944)
[28] See Rabbani, R. (1969)
[29] Bury, p. 240, italics added. See also Schelling, Friedrich von (1775-1854),
who, according to Bury, also "saw in history a progressive revelation of divine
reason." Bury, p. 256, italics added
[30] See e.g., Sharpe, E. J. (1986). pp. 1-46
[31] Sharpe, E. J. (1986). pp. 27-32, italics added
[32] Caird, E. (1907). pp. 25-2
[33] See Hellholm, D. (1983)
[34] E.g., Dulles, A. (1994); Ward, K. (1994
[35] The Bahá'í religion is the second most widespread religion in
the world with c. 7 million adherents. It is also the largest minority religion
in Iran. See Hatcher, W. S. and Martin, J. D. (1989); Fazel, S. (1994);
Schaefer, U. (1988
[36] See e.g., Balyuzi, H. M. (1970); Momen, M. (Ed.) (1987); MacEoin, D. M.
(1979)
[37] Taherzadeh, A. (1987). vol. I, pp. 35-36; pp. 42-4
[38] In the Swedish Bahá'í News Magazine (Bahá'í
Nytt;
Nov. 1993), it is estimated that of Bahá'u'lláh's c.
15000 written documents (ranging from books, tablets, and especially letters),
7160 have been allocated and preserved in the Archives at the
Bahá'í World Center, Haifa, Israel. In comparison, the works of
'Abdu'l-Bahá, the figure is 15549 out of c. 30800, and Shoghi Effendi,
the amount is 16370 out of c. 30100. The total amount of available written
material, thus amounts to 39079. The rest of the written documents, estimated
to be c. 37000, has either been destroyed, lost, or is hidden among either
Bahá'í or non-Bahá'í
[39] This is especially the case with studies in the Bábí-religion
where only portions of his writings have been translated into English. See:
Báb (1978); Browne, E.G., (1918). However, some of the most important
works of the Báb, the Arabic Bayán and the Persian Bayán,
have both been translated into French, e.g., Nicolas, A. L. M. (1905) and
(1911-1914). In this moment of writing a group of Bahá'í
scholars, competent in Arabic and/or Persian, are both trying to systematize
the works of Bahá'u'lláh and to translate hitherto unknown works
in the Bahá'í community.
[40] It is to be noted that Shoghi Effendi only wrote one book, God Passes By,
which was published in 1944. The rest of the titles which are associated with
his name are compilations of letters in his correspondence with the world-wide
Bahá'í community.
[41] The exceptions are Farsi, Urdu, and Turkish. In these cases the original
Arabic/Persian sources are used as the basis for translation. See: LG, p. 107;
Volker, C. A. (1989-90)
[42] For a more detailed explanation why English is used as the primary language
for translations see: Collins, W. (1990). LG, p. 107; Volker, C. A.
(1989-90).
[43] For an explanation of "structural criticism" see Hayes, J. H. & Holladay,
C. R. (1987). pp. 110-11
[44] See Appendices I and II. See e.g., Schuon, F. (1984
[45] For an explanation of "surface structures" and "deep structures" see Hayes, J.
H. & Holladay, C. R. (1987). pp. 110-11
Chapter 4
IV. Apocalypticism and the Dimensions of Revelation
1. Problems of definition
The study of apocalypticism or revelation is filled with the same enigmas and
problems of definition and classification as that of the study of religion
itself. However, the study of religion is a much wider and more complex
phenomenon than the study of apocalypticism since the former includes the
latter. Yet, the two areas seem to be intimately associated with each other and
their close relationship is illustrated by the definitions of "revelation"
found in two different encyclopedias. For example, Encyclopedia Judaica states
that "Phenomenologically, every religion finds its starting point in a
revelation."[46] Similarly, Encyclopedia
of Religion writes that "The concept of revelation is a fundamental one in
every religion that in any way traces its origin to God or a divinity."[47] The first
definition is quite broad and
universal since it embodies "every religion." The second definition is more
specific and exclusive since it limits the origin of revelation to religions
which identify a "God or a divinity." Consequently, the association between
religion and revelation depends ultimately on how the terms "religion" and
"revelation" are defined and operationalized. For example, Karl Barth maintains
that Christianity alone possesses a revelation,[48] but Keith Ward, although he
upholds
Christianity as the only true revelation, includes not only the "world
religions" (e.g., Hinduism and Buddhism), but also all "primal religions"
(i.e., religions of primal societies) into the category of revelation.[49] The latter
view is reminiscent of
Nathan Söderblom's distinction between "revealed religion"
(uppenbarelsereligion) and "cultural religion" (kulturreligion).[50]
Barth's view could be classified as exclusive in that it excludes all other
religions from the phenomenon of revelation. Similarly, Ward and
Söderblom's views could be categorized as inclusive since they include
other religions into the field of revelation. There is yet a third possible
view which can be grouped as universal and which is advocated by a philosopher
of religion, John Hick. He states that the "great world traditions constitute
different conceptions of, and responses to, the Real from within the different
cultural ways of being human."[51] Thus,
rather than limiting the origin of revelation to a "God or a divinity," Hick
prefers to define it as "the Real." This view is also quite similar to the
Sofia Perennis school which emphasize the esoteric and universal aspects of
religion.[52] From these different
positions it is possible to conclude on the one hand that narrow, or specific,
definitions of religion and revelation tend to be exclusive whereas broad, or
vague, definitions of religion and revelation on the other hand have a tendency
to be more universal.
Even when consulting an English dictionary one finds that the word "revelation"
is affiliated with very different meanings: "Act of revealing," "that which is
revealed," "divine communication," and "the Apocalypse."[53] The first and third
definitions are
associated with a process of revelation, whereas the second and fourth
definitions are connoted with the content of revelation, or a piece of
apocalyptic literature. From an etymological perspective, the term "revelation"
is derived from the Latin word reuéláre which means "to draw back
a veil."[54] Ward also conveys this
meaning in that the "root idea of revelation is the manifesting or disclosing
of something which is normally hidden."[55] However, as can be seen from the
English dictionary definition above, "revelation" also has a certain Biblical
or literal connotation since it is the title of the last book of The New
Testament, The Apocalypse according John. This original title is obtained from
the Greek word apocalypsis, which means "to uncover."[56]
As was seen in the religious context above apocalyptic ideas are found in very
ancient religious traditions and, although the term "apocalypse" has Biblical
connotations, this concept did not originate with inception of the Christian
tradition. On the contrary, the Judaism has an extensive apocalyptic corpus and
tradition, but some scholars maintain that it has been greatly influenced by
Zoroastrianism.[57] Further, in the
Jewish scriptures there are four various verbs which are used to express the
divine act of revelation: glh (to uncover), yd' (to proclaim, make oneself
known), nggd (to report), and dvr (which is used for decisive communication on
God's part).[58] According to the
Encyclopedia Judaica the first form, glh (to uncover), is used only rarely to
denote divine revelation. Rather, the Hebrew idea of revelation consists
instead of the "manifestation of the invisible God, unknowable to man on his
own."[59] In addition, the Arabic word
for revelation in Islám is denoted by two different terms or concepts:
wahy, (which is derived from the root "to inspire"), and tanzíl (sending
down). Moreover, the Arabic term ilhám (inspiration or intuition)
signifies a kind of secondary, or indirect revelation, as reflected within the
individual believer.[60] Thus, there
appears to be some etymological similarity between the terms glh, apocalypsis,
and reuéláre in the sense that they all impart the meaning of
something being "uncovered" or "disclosed." However, it is also possible to
discern that although the three relatively close religious traditions (Judaism,
Christianity, and Islám) have been referred to, the term "revelation"
clearly carries other connotations as well (e.g., "to report," "sending down,"
"inspire") and may therefore not be defined solely by the etymological Latin
root "to unveil."
The problem of definition is even more complex if one examines the
"non-Semitic" religious traditions (especially the Indian and Chinese
religions), which hardly mentions a concept of revelation. However, there has
been published works within the Hindu tradition which use the concept of
revelation.[61] Another reasoning that
advocates that the Hindu tradition possesses a concept of revelation is the
distinction between the Vedas and the Upanishads, which both have the status of
being shruti (heard), i.e., "revealed" directly by the gods, or the rishis
(seers), and those scriptures which are considered to be composed of men which
are labeled smrti (remembered).[62]
In the Bahá'í-religion no clear technical definition of
revelation is given, but it is possible to more or less observe all the modes
of revelation mentioned above. However, the glh and tanzíl modes seem
most prevalent, but such a study is unfortunately beyond the scope of this
thesis. Suffice it to say, and as will be seen in this thesis, the terms
revelation and religion are often treated synonymously in various
Bahá'í-texts.[63]
According to Tord Olsson the technical terms "'apocalypse', 'apocalypticism'
and 'apocalyptic literature' have been used rather ambiguously in scholarly
literature,"[64] and from the discussion
above, it is quite evident that such endeavors can be highly problematic. Yet,
although a technical definition will not be provided for this thesis, it is
nonetheless necessary to operationalize the terms "apocalypticism" and
"revelation." This shall be attempted at the end of this chapter. First,
however, two relevant definitions of "revelation" and "apocalypticism" will be
reviewed. The Encyclopedia of Religion defines "revelation" more elaborately
as:
[ . . .] a free announcement by the divinity.
This announcement even goes beyond hierophanies and epiphanies and involves the
manifestation of something holy or the rendering apprehensible of a divine
depth, inasmuch as it always clearly includes the distinction between revealing
subject and revealed object, between self-revealing God and mystery made
known.[65]
Here a distinction is made between the subject (God) and the object of
revelation. Olsson similarly defines "apocalypticism" as follows:
Apocalypticism in its various aspects is related
to a type of world-view which contains ideological premises for belief in the
possibility of communication between man and the supramundane world, i.e., that
divine secrets or plans relative to the mundane world in the present, past or
future, can be revealed to human recipient. These revealed secrets may then
refer to such diverse matters as the course of world history from beginning to
end, certain epochs in history, eschatological events, and existential problems
of human life.[66]
In both definitions, revelation or apocalypticism are seen as an "announcement"
or a "communication". However, the second definition does not distinguish
between the subject and the object of revelation but rather between "the
supramundane world" and man (human recipient). Note also that apocalypticism
contains "various aspects." In both passages it is God or the supramundane
world which is disclosing itself to the human world through an announcement or
communication. Similarly, when discussing the origin of revelation, Ward states
that revelation can be defined as "a communication of knowledge by God or by a
suprahuman spiritual source."[67] From
these and the above attempts of defining "revelation" and "apocalypticism," it
can be noted that they all point to a source, or origin, of revelation which is
attributed to either a "divinity," "God," a "suprahuman spiritual source," or a
"supramundane world." Rather than limiting the definition of revelation with
the term "God," one can, in general, state that source or origin of revelation
is ultimately associated with a "supramundane" or "transcendental" reality and
its relationship to humanity. This "vertical" directionality is developed in
the next section.
2. A structural approach to revelation
In addition to defining revelation the Encyclopedia of Religion lists five
different criteria (characteristics or factors) of revelation which are used by
phenomenologists of religion:[68]
- Origin or author
- Instruments or means
- Content or object
- Recipient or addressees
- Effect or consequence for the recipient
The above stated criteria suggests a rather complex and dynamic relationship,
but these criteria have, for the sake of simplicity and for the purpose of this
thesis, been reduced to three fundamental apocalyptic actors: 1) The
supramundane reality, sender, or source of revelation (S), (i.e., the origin or
author of revelation); 2) The messenger, or mediator of revelation (M); and 3)
The receiver(s) or recipient(s) of revelation (R) (i.e., the recipient or
addressees). A more elaborated and dynamic model could be devised to include
not only the three actors above, but where the Messenger also could be
considered as both the receiver (R) and sender (S) of revelation. In addition,
the model could be further ramified in that some world religions also describe
a level of mediation between the Source (S) and the Messenger (M) such as an
angel, archangel, or holy spirit. In this more elaborate model the first level
of mediation can be labeled (M1) and the second level (M2). The (M1) level is
beyond the scope of this study but could be equated with the areas of
angelology or theophanology. The (S) level corresponds in this thesis to
Bahá'í-theology and the (M2) level to
Bahá'í-prophetology. The content of revelation (C) is, in the
scriptural traditions, usually attributed with a canon of sacred literature.
The instrumentality, or means, of revelation (I) could be seen as the various
modes of revelation mentioned above (glh, yd', nggd, dvr, wahy, tanzíl,
and ilhám). These could, in turn, be related to the various levels in
the above stated model.[69] Moreover,
these different criteria may be applied to illustrate the vertical
directionality of the apocalyptic structure within a single religion and/or for
comparative purposes as shown below:
Table 1 (did not scan properly, so it's not been included in this online version)
This model is primarily a structural approach to various criteria in the field
of apocalypticism and as such it also depicts some general levels or dimensions
of revelation. The (M1) or (C) levels have not been included and analyzed in
this thesis since areas like Bahá'í-cosmology and Universal and
Specific Revelation were more appropriate. Hence, the simplified version of
this model has been applied in general, and as will be shown, the
Bahá'í-authors both explicitly and implicitly describe
Bahá'í-apocalypticism in a similar structural scheme (See
Appendix I). Further, as will be shown below, there are supplementary
dimensions, or alternate models, which also could be utilized to describe the
complex structure of apocalypticism.
Earlier, Olsson defined "apocalypticism" as "divine secrets" which referred to
"such diverse matters as the course of world history from beginning to end,
certain epochs in history, eschatological events, and existential problems of
human life." This could be defined as the "content" of revelation and elsewhere
Olsson continues to say that:
[. . .] "apocalypticism" seems to be relevant so
far as it raises the question of the content of revelation; if something is
revealed or uncovered, it must, of course, be a revelation of things that have
been previously hidden, i.e., secrets . . . Apocalypticism is thus defined as
revelation of the secrets of the cosmos and/or the invisible, divine world, or
as revelation about the end of the world, or as revelation concerning the
course of the world's history from creation till the end of time according to a
fixed chronological framework, arranging history in particular periods though
concentrating on the final phase.[70]
It is interesting that although Olsson speaks about the "content of revelation"
he also enumerates several areas which are related to the field of
apocalypticism and which points to concepts, structures and dimensions beyond
its content. Hence, Olsson clearly emphasizes one of these dimensions
the eschatological dimension which primarily centers on
the horizontal directionality of revelation in that it concerns the temporal,
spatial, and causal realms. In the next section some additional dimensions will
briefly be discussed.
3. The dimensions of revelation
Above it was noted that religion and revelation were intimately related and it
is therefore interesting that Ward, in his Religion and Revelation, applies
Ninian Smart's six main dimensions of religion (mythical, doctrinal, ethical,
social, ritual, experiential) when classifying the various dimensions of
revelation.[71] In like manner, Avery
Dulles, in his Models of Revelation, lists five various models which he refers
to as: Propositional, Historical, Experiential, Dialectical, and New
Consciousness.[72] Although there appears
to be some overlap between the two authors' classifications, it is important to
note that Ward examines both, what he calls "primal religions," and five
scriptural traditions (Judaism, Vedanta, Buddhism, Islám, and
Christianity), whereas Dulles only studies models of revelation within the
Christian tradition. However, the crucial point here is that both authors
categorize the field of revelation into multidimensional models or structures.
It would be possible to adopt either Smart's or Dulles' classifications with
respect to Bahá'í-apocalypticism and systematically investigate
all the various dimensions or models of revelation. This thesis, however, looks
primarily at two of the above mentioned models of revelation, namely the
Dialectical Model and the Historical Model. But rather than using these
specific terms, since they are not totally compatible, the terms "vertical
axis" and "horizontal axis" have been preferred instead. The vertical axis
corresponds in general to the structural approach described above and the
horizontal axis correlates overall to an historical directionality in
revelation. The vertical axis of revelation pertains to the structural
relationships between the "supramundane" (S), the "mediator" (M), and
"humanity" (R), or the relationship between various "mediators". In other
words, this axis is defined as "vertical" since it points beyond the spatial,
temporal, causal, and as such it can also be designated as a "transcendental,"
"essential" or "esoteric" dimension. In contrast, the horizontal axis refers to
revelation in a historical and/or eschatological scheme, i.e., to certain fixed
chronological frameworks, periods, and cycles. Consequently, this axis focuses
within the temporal, spatial, and causal, realms which also can be regarded as
an "immanent," "manifest," or "exoteric" dimension. Although this bipolar model
suggests that the two axes and dimensions are independent from each other, they
are, as will be shown in this thesis, intimately correlated and integrated in
the Bahá'í-texts and are essential to a deeper understanding of
the concept of progressive revelation.
4. Apocalypticism and revelation operationalized
With the above discussed areas in mind it is now easier to operationalize the
terms "apocalypticism" and "revelation." With regard to the term
"apocalypticism" Olsson makes the following relevant and useful distinctions:
- apocalypticism as a speculative and verbal
activity comprising more or less coherent systems of apocalyptic ideas,
- apocalyptic ideas which constitute the above systems but are also
found in other contexts than apocalypticism, and
- apocalypse as a literary type in which apocalyptic ideas or systems
of ideas are expressed.[73]
The term "apocalypticism" here described as "a more or less coherent systems of
apocalyptic ideas" would in this thesis correspond to the term
"Bahá'í-apocalypticism." As will be shown in this thesis, this
system (Bahá'í-apocalypticism) does contain numerous apocalyptic
ideas. The term "apocalyptic idea" would here correlate to the term "the
concept of progressive revelation".[74]
This concept is regarded as only one apocalyptic idea of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism and consequently not the only one. As was
stated in the beginning of this thesis, the primary objective of this study is
to show that the concept of progressive revelation is a central concept of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism, but not that it is the central concept.
Such an investigation could be ventured, but then one would have to take into
account all other possible apocalyptic ideas of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism as well. The term "apocalypse" is not used
in this thesis, but it interesting to note that this expression could
correspond to the "content of revelation." Thus, it would here be equated with
the (C) level in the structural approach above and in this context it
corresponds to the Bahá'í-canon. The term "revelation," although
it is etymologically speaking synonymous with the term "apocalypse," refer in
this thesis only to either different apocalyptic ideas, structures, or various
dimensions within the system of Bahá'í-apocalypticism. The term
"revelation" occurs within different contexts of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism, e.g., "progressive revelation," "Universal
Revelation," and "Special Revelation," and may therefore be connoted with a
variety of meanings depending upon the context. In conclusion, the term
"Bahá'í-apocalypticism" is operationalized as: a system of
dimensions of revelations (apocalyptic ideas) where the concept of progressive
revelation is seen as a central concept.
Notes:
[46] Encyclopedia Judaica, p. 11
[47] Eliade, M. (1987). p. 35
[48] Eliade, M. (1987). p. 35
[49] Ward, K. (1994). p. 5
[50] Söderblom, N. (1930
[51] Hick, J. (1989). p. 37
[52] E.g., Aldous Huxley, Henry Corbin, S. H. Nasr, Frithjof Schuon, Houston Smith
et al.; see e.g., Schuon, F. (1984)
[53] Patterson, R. F. (1991). p. 19
[54] Skeat, W. W. (1984). p. 44
[55] Ward, K. (1994). p. 9
[56] Skeat, W. W. (1984). p. 21
[57] See Boyce, M. (1979); Duchesne-Guillemin, J. (1952); Hellholm, D.
(1979
[58] Eliade, M. (1987). p. 35
[59] Encyclopedia Judaica, p. 11
[60] Glassé, C. (1989). p. 33
[61] See Murty, K. S. (1959). Revelation and Reason in Advaita Vedánta. The
title "Revelation and Reason" seems to be popular in the field of revelation
since there has been published two earlier works with a similar title, one in
the Christian tradition; Brunner, E. (1947). Revelation and Reason, and one of
the Muslim tradition; Arberry, A. J. (1957). Revelation and Reason in Islam
[62] Eliade, M. (1987). p. 36
[63] See e.g., GWB, p. 81; KI, p. 239, p. 24
[64] Olsson, T. (1983). p. 2
[65] Eliade, M. (1987). p. 356, italics added
[66] Olsson, T. (1983). p. 30, italics added
[67] Ward, K. (1994). p.
[68] Eliade, M. (1987). pp. 356-36
[69] It is beyond the scope of this thesis to analyze these various modes of
revelation but, as shall be seen in this thesis, the cosmos is seen as the
instrument of revelation where "Universal and Specific Revelation" may be
viewed as two different means of revelation which also suggests that the (M)
level could also be considered an instrument of revelation
[70] Olsson, T. ( 1983). p. 23, italics added
[71] Ward, K. (1995). p. 55 ff; Smart, N. (1971). p. 15f
[72] Dulles, A. (1994). pp. 141-154, pp. 27-2
[73] Olsson, T. (1983). pp. 27-2
[74] In this thesis the term "the concept of progressive revelation" is preferred
before the term "apocalyptic idea" since this is how the term is defined in the
English Bahá'í-text.
Chapter 5
V. Bahá'í Apocalypticism
In this chapter the various areas within Bahá'í-apocalypticism
(theology, cosmology, Universal and Specific Revelation, and prophetology) will
be introduced and examined. As a whole, these areas serve as a general
framework to the subsequent analysis of the concept of progressive
revelation.
1. Theology the source of revelation
The Bahá'í-religion is a monotheistic religion since one of its
fundamental principles is the belief in the "oneness of God" or "unity of
God."[75] An example of this is seen in
one of the obligatory Bahá'í prayers[76] where the oneness of God is
emphasized.
Further, the oneness and unity of God is also mentioned in several other
Bahá'í-prayers. In addition, one of the "names" of God is "the
One"[77] which is mentioned in the
following passage by Bahá'u'lláh:
This, in truth, is the very root and essence of
belief in the unity and singleness of God. "God was alone; there was none else
besides Him." He, now, is what He hath ever been. There is none other God but
Him, the One [. . .] He is, and hath from everlasting been, one and alone,
without peer or equal, eternal in the past, eternal in the future, detached
from all things, ever-abiding, unchangeable, and self-subsisting.[78]
As in the Judeo-Christian and Islámic traditions, the word for "God"
(Alláh) in the Bahá'í-religion is in the masculine gender
("He") and thus question concerning gender and anthropomorphism can therefore
appropriately be raised. The Semitic languages lack a neutrum and the word for
God is in the masculine genus and since the Bahá'í-religion
emerged within a Islámic cultural context it has followed suit in this
semantic tradition. However, the Bahá'í-authors refute that God
has a gender or is a man. For example, Bahá'u'lláh writes
that "God, the unknowable Essence, the Divine Being, is immensely exalted
beyond every human attribute," or that "He hath through all eternity been free
of the attributes of human creatures, and ever will remain so."[79] Furthermore,
Shoghi Effendi comments on
the topic of a personal God as follows: "Such conception of Divine Being . . .
is not anthropomorphic, for it transcends all human limitations and forms."[80]
Yet, the Bahá'í-authors
portrays God as a personal God who is addressed in prayers in rather intimate
terms, e.g., as "a prayer-hearing and prayer-answering God," or "Friend."[81]
Although God is described in personal terms, with innumerable attributes or
"names," the essence of God is defined in an almost agnostic terminology.[82] In his
Kitáb-i-Íqán,
Bahá'u'lláh depicts God as "the unknowable essence" who "hath
ever been veiled in the ancient eternity of His Essence, and will remain in His
Reality everlastingly hidden from the sight of men."[83] The following excerpts
from
Bahá'u'lláh further emphasize this point:
Immeasurably exalted is He above the strivings
of the human mind to grasp His Essence, or of human tongue to describe His
mystery. No tie of direct intercourse can ever bind Him to the things He hath
created, nor can the most abstruse and most remote allusions of His creatures
do justice to His being. . . He is and hath ever been veiled in the ancient
eternity of His own exalted and indivisible Essence, and will everlastingly
continue to remain concealed in His inaccessible majesty and glory.[84]
[. . . ] I beseech Thee by Thy Name which no scroll can bear, which no heart
can imagine and no tongue can utter a Name which will remain
concealed so long as Thine own Essence is hidden and will be glorified so long
as Thine own being is extolled.[85]
In the first quotation Bahá'u'lláh states that: "No tie of
intercourse can ever bind Him to the things He hath created." This is a
significant point which shall be addressed below.[86] In the last citation, which is a
prayer, even the name of God remains unknown. These statements that the essence
of God "hath ever been veiled in the ancient eternity" and that God's "Essence
is hidden" seem to be quite contrary to some of the definitions of revelation
above which were stated as an "unveiling" or a "disclosure of a superhuman
reality" to human beings. However, this is also a paradox since the "short
obligatory prayer" in the Bahá'í-religion states that God has
created human beings in order to be known and worshipped.[87] How is this
possible if God is
completely hidden, inaccessible and thereby unknowable to human beings? The
enigma may be solved in that although God is "One" he is on one hand a personal
God, possessing innumerable attributes, and yet on the other hand, an
impersonal God, who is "sanctified above all attributes and holy above all
names."[88] The following lines
delineates this mystical duality of God's nature: "Thou art the most manifest
of the manifest and the most hidden of the hidden!" and "God . . . Who is both
the Visible and the Invisible."[89] Here
God is described as being both completely immanent (most manifest, visible)
while being absolutely transcendental (most hidden, invisible).[90] The immanent
nature of God could be
equated with a personal, or manifest, God who is the possessor of innumerable
attributes and names, and the impersonal and hidden nature of God with the
unknowable essence of God.[91]
The next three excerpts illustrates and contrasts the hidden, or
transcendental, nature of God who wants to reveal, or manifest, himself and
that this manifestation is seen as connected to the very act of creation:
He [God] was a hidden treasure. This is a
station that can never be described nor even alluded to. And in the station of
'I did wish to make Myself known', God was, and His creation had ever
existed.[92]
The Cause of creation of all contingent beings has been love, as it is
mentioned in the famous tradition: "I was a hidden treasure, and I loved to be
known. Therefore I created the creation in order to be known."[93]
Thou didst wish to make Thyself known unto men; therefore, Thou didst, through
a word of Thy mouth, bring creation into being and fashion the
universe.[94]
According to these passages, God expresses a wish, or desire, from His side, to
be known, and this is ultimately upheld as the generating impulse of
creation.[95] Thus, God's desire to be
known, and God's creation of human beings in order to be known, appear to be
intimately complementary. Although Bahá'u'lláh writes that the
"door of the knowledge of the Ancient Being hath ever been, and will continue
for ever to be, closed in the face of men,"[96] he also states in another context that:
Every created thing in the whole universe is but
a door leading unto His knowledge, a sign of His sovereignty, a revelation of
His names, a symbol of His majesty, a token of His power, a means of admittance
into His straight path.[97]
The sentence that everything in the universe is "a revelation of His names" can
be noted in the passing since it alludes to the concept of "Universal
Revelation" which shall be discussed below. Further, even though human beings
may not know the essence, or the totality, of God, he can still be known
through "Every created thing" and consequently, this implies that the human
being can also know God by knowing himself. On this subject
Bahá'u'lláh, apparently referring to another source, says that:
"He hath known God who hath known himself." . .
. From that which hath been said it becometh evident that all things, in their
inmost reality, testify to the revelation of the names and attributes of God
within them. Each according to its capacity, indicateth, and is expressive of,
the knowledge of God.[98]
Again one can see that the "names and attributes of God," which exists in all
things, is described as a "revelation." Notice also that these names and
attributes of God are known and expressed according to "capacity." This is an
important and recurrent key term and concept of Bahá'í-
apocalypticism which shall be discussed in various contexts throughout this
thesis.
In like manner, 'Abdul-Bahá also on the one hand states that God's
"attributes are unknowable," and that the "Universal Reality with all its
qualities and attributes . . . is holy and exalted above all minds and
understandings."[99] Yet, on the other
hand, he also states that one can know God "by His attributes . . . by His
signs . . . by His names." In comparing the reality of God to the reality of
the sun, 'Abdul-Bahá continues to say that "We know not what the reality
of the sun is, but we know the sun by the ray, by the heat, by its efficacy and
penetration."[100] In distinguishing
between the "Reality" and the "attributes" of God he also says that "Knowing
God, therefore, means the comprehension and the knowledge of His attributes,
and not of His Reality."[101]
Consequently, the "Reality" of God can be equated with either the essence of
God, or the Universal Reality (God) with "all its qualities and attributes."
The latter phrase is suggestive to the totality of God's qualities and
attributes.
From the above one may conclude that humans are capable not only to know the
attributes and names of God through: 1) creation and 2) themselves, but that
they were created for this very reason. However, humans can know neither the
essence of God nor the totality of the attributes, or names, of God. In the
subsequent sections (Cosmology, Universal and Specific Revelation, and
Prophetology) it will be shown that there is a third way to know God, namely
through the mediation of revelation (M).
2. Cosmology the instrument of
revelation
From this brief survey of Bahá'í-theology one could readily see
that revelation is intimately related to theology, and that theology (the
knowledge of God) in its turn is connected with cosmology (creation). The
question is now how cosmology is further associated with revelation. The
following prayer by Bahá'u'lláh may illustrate this
relationship:
Wishing to reveal Thyself, Thou didst call into
being the Greater and the Lesser Worlds, and didst choose Man above all Thy
creatures, and didst make Him a sign of both these worlds . . . Thou didst
raise Him up to occupy Thy throne before all the people of Thy Creation. Thou
didst enable Him to unravel Thy mysteries, and to shine with the lights of
Thine inspiration and Thy Revelation, and to manifest Thy names and Thine
attributes.[102]
In this prayer one can discern the three mentioned areas above: God, in His
wish to reveal Himself (revelation) has created both "the Greater and the
Lesser Worlds" (cosmology), and the human being has been chosen above all other
creatures with the unique capacity to know God (theology) and to manifest the
names and attributes of God. In other words, the creation of cosmos has an
intimate connection with the purpose of the creation of the human being
(teleology), and as will be seen below, the structure of cosmos is related to
the nature of revelation. Further, one may notice that humans occupy a unique
rank in creation.[103]
Bahá'u'lláh also distinguishes between "the Greater and the
Lesser worlds" above, and 'Abdul'-Bahá comments and elaborates upon this
cosmological distinction as follows:
Man is the microcosm; and the infinite universe,
the macrocosm. The mysteries of the greater world, or macrocosm, are expressed
or revealed in the lesser world, the microcosm. The tree, so to speak, is the
greater world, and the seed in its relation to the tree is the lesser world.
But the whole of the great tree is potentially latent and hidden in the little
seed. When this seed is planted and cultivated, the tree is revealed. Likewise,
the greater world, the macrocosm, is latent and minitured in the lesser world,
or microcosm, of man. This constitutes the universality or perfection of
virtues potential in mankind. Therefore it is said that man has been created in
the image and likeness of God.[104]
In this quote cosmology is again associated with revelation and theology in
that macrocosmos is "revealed in the lesser world" (revelation) which portrays
that "man has been created in the image and likeness of God"[105]
(cosmology/theology). The
macro/microcosmos structure is also a recurrent scheme in the
Bahá'í writings. In this context one can also observe the organic
metaphor with the seed and the tree where the tree, which is potentially latent
in the seed, is subsequently "revealed."
In two quite general statements 'Abdu'l-Bahá writes that "all creation
is growing and evolving. It never ceases," and that "the world of existence is
progressive. It is subject to development and growth."[106] The important key
terms here, in
connection with the cosmos, are: growth, progress, development, and evolution.
These progressive characteristics of cosmos can also be seen from other
passages by 'Abdu'l-Bahá which highlights other key terms of progress in
that the cosmos is seen as a gradual and sequential unfoldment:
[. . .] this terrestrial globe in its present
form, did not come into existence all at once; but that this universal
existence gradually passed through different phases until it became adorned
with its present perfection. Universal beings resemble and can be compared to
particular beings, for both are subjected to one natural system, one universal
law and divine organisation. So you will find the smallest of atoms in the
universal system are similar to the greatest beings of the universe. It is
clear that they come into existence from one laboratory of might under one
natural system and one universal law; therefore they may be compared to one
another. Thus, the embryo of man in the womb of the mother gradually grows and
develops, and appear in different forms and conditions, until in the degree of
perfect beauty it reaches maturity and appears in a perfect form with the
utmost grace. And in the same way, the seed of this flower which you see was in
the beginning an insignificant thing, and very small; and it grew and developed
in the womb of the earth and, after appearing in various forms, came forth in
this condition with perfect freshness and grace. In the same manner it is
evident that this terrestrial globe having once found its existence, grew and
developed in the matrix of the universe, and came forth in different forms and
conditions, until gradually it attained this present perfection, and became
adorned with innumerable beings, and appeared as a finished organisation.[107]
[. . .] the world evolved gradually. . . God did not allow the world to come
into existence all at once, rather, the divine breath of life manifested itself
in the commanding Word of God, logos, which engendered and begot the world. We
thus have a progressive process of creation, and not a one-time happening . . .
both scholars and Prophets have testified to the progressive creative action of
the logos (divine breath of life).[108]
In these citations it can be observed that the universe has not been created in
an instant but that it has "gradually passed through different phases," or that
it is a "progressive process of creation." Again, the macro/microcosmos scheme
is brought up since "the smallest of atoms in the universal system are similar
to the greatest beings of the universe." However, this last point shows that
the macro/micro scheme is not limited, or exclusively applied, to human beings
but that this scheme can be found on many levels, and thus, can "this
terrestrial globe" be compared to "the embryo." Once again one may notice the
usage of different organic metaphors (e.g., embryo, seed, flower). The notion
of progress is also, according to 'Abdu'l-Bahá, depicted as a "universal
law"[109] which reigns on all levels,
from microcosmos to macrocosmos.[110] In
addition, 'Abdu'l-Bahá defines progress as follows:
'Progress' is the expansion of spirit in the
world of matter. The intelligence of man, his reasoning powers, his knowledge,
his scientific achievements, all these being manifestations of the spirit,
partake of the inevitable law of spiritual progress and are, therefore, of
necessity, immortal.[111]
Progress is here referred to it as an "inevitable law." This principle of
progress is further related to yet another important characteristic of
Bahá'í-cosmology, that of its structure or "kingdoms." For
example, 'Abdu'l-Bahá writes that:
Creation is the expression of motion. Motion is
life. A moving object is a living object, whereas that which is motionless and
inert is as dead. All created forms are progressive in their planes, or
kingdoms of existence, under the stimulus of the power or spirit of life. This
universal energy is dynamic. Nothing is stationary in the material worlds of
outer phenomena or in the inner world of intellect and consciousness.[112]
In this passage the dynamic nature of creation is clearly portrayed, but the
important point here is the description of "planes, or kingdoms of existence,"
and that "All created forms are progressive." In addition to discussing
physical creation or cosmos, the Bahá'í-texts not only describe
all of existence as having various levels, planes, or kingdoms, but that they
are arranged in what could be classified as a "spiritual hierarchy."
Bahá'u'lláh elaborates and comments upon this hierarchical
structure of the worlds in his Haft-Vádí (The Seven
Valleys)[113]:
Although the divine worlds be never ending, yet
some refer to them as four: The world of time (zamán), which is the one
that hath both a beginning and an end; the world of duration (dahr), which hath
a beginning, but whose end is not revealed; the world of perpetuity (sarmad),
whose beginning is not to be seen but which is known to have an end; and the
world of eternity (azal), neither a beginning nor an end of which is visible. .
. . . Thus, some have said that the world of perpetuity hath neither beginning
nor end, and have named the world of eternity the invisible, impregnable
Empyrean. Others have called these worlds of the Heavenly Court
(Láhút), of the Empyrean Heaven (Jabarút), of the Kingdom
of the Angels (Malakút), and of the mortal world
(Násút).[114]
One can summarize this cosmological hierarchy[115] in the following
structure:
Table 2 (online appearance somewhat
distorted)
- Háhút:
- the realm of the
unknowable Essence of God; the realm of "He" (huwa) a station (maqám) of
divine oneness inaccessible to human understanding; the paradise of absolute
oneness (ahadiyya).
- Láhút:
- the first emanation
from God; (divinity) "He is He, there is none other than He." This refers to
God's unity and uniqueness, and only the most purified and holy of the
worshippers can understand this station; in this realm the divine names and
attributes, potential and concealed in the realm of hahút, achieve their
existence.
- Jabarút:
- the revealed God acting
within Creation; (the realm of divine dominion). "Thou art He and He is Thou
Thyself." This realm is called the paradise of unconditioned oneness
(wáhidiyya), the all-highest Paradise.
- Malakút:
- the angelic realm, the
Concourse on High, the all-glorious (abhá) Paradise; (the realm of
divine power)
- Násút:
- the physical world;
mineral-, vegetable-, animal- and human kingdoms.
This structure depicts cosmos as being hierarchically connected with the field
of revelation in the sense that the higher levels are ontologically "nearer"
God and where God's nature is more fully revealed and comprehended. Above all,
this scheme suggests the vertical axis of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism.[116]
As discussed in the previous section, God's essence can in this structure be
seen to belong to the realm of Háhút. God is also in the
Bahá'í-texts referred to as the "Ruler of the universe," the
"central Orb of the universe," and the "Lord of all worlds."[117] Although the
passage and structure
above elaborates upon five worlds, this numerical value should not be seen as
an absolute or fixed figure of Bahá'í-cosmology, since it is
possible to allocate references to: two worlds (God and His Creation, or the
Greater and the Lesser Worlds); three worlds (God, the Manifestation of God,
and human beings;[118] or the world of
divinity, the world of command, and the world of creation); or four worlds
(zamán, dahr, sarmad, and azal). Moreover, in the citation above, where
the four and five worlds were mentioned, the passage started with the sentence
"Although the divine worlds be never ending, yet some refer to them
as four." This suggests that the worlds of God are infinite. In addition, a
further support that the worlds of God are innumerable can be seen from another
excerpt by Bahá'u'lláh:
[. . .] the worlds of God are countless in their
number, and infinite in their range. None can reckon or comprehend them, except
God, the All-Knowing, the All-Wise [. . .] the creation of God embraceth worlds
beside this world; and creatures apart from these creatures.[119]
Even though the cosmos may be divided into various levels, the concern of this
thesis is mainly the Násút realm, or the physical world. The
reasons for focusing on this level are that it has been mostly elaborated upon
by the Bahá'í-authors[120]
and that it clearly illustrates the theme of progress, both in each kingdom,
and between the different kingdoms. As was seen above, the Násút
level can be subdivided into four major grades or kingdoms: the mineral-,
vegetable-, animal-, and human kingdoms. For example, 'Abdu'l-Bahá
writes that:
[. . .] the men of divine knowledge have said
that all existing phenomena may be resolved into grades or kingdoms, classified
progressively as mineral, vegetable, animal and human, each of which possess
its degree of function and intelligence.[121]
It is unclear from the context who the "men of divine knowledge" exactly refer
to, but the significant point here is that the "grades or kingdoms" are
"classified progressively" where the first three kingdoms also are described as
the "lower kingdoms" or "lower creatures."[122] 'Abdu'l-Bahá explains
these
levels as additive in that each higher level incorporates all the
characteristics of each level below, but displays additional and unique
features and capacities which are absent in the levels below. For example, the
human being is depicted as being endowed with consciousness, ideation,
intellect, and spiritual faculties, which are deficient in the lower levels.
Humans are thus, relatively speaking, regarded as superior beings.[123]
Furthermore, the human being,
according to 'Abdu'l-Bahá, is equipped with volition, while the lower
kingdoms are described as "captives of nature." Consequently, the human being
"transcends nature, while the mineral, vegetable and animal are helplessly
subject to it. This can be done only through the power of the spirit, because
the spirit is the reality."[124] Here one
can readily see the emphasis of the spiritual nature of the human being in
contrast to the lower kingdoms, and that this spirituality is further equated
with "reality."
As has been shown earlier, cosmos is viewed as dynamic and progressive.
However, this progressive theme also exists in the lower kingdoms. Yet,
although progress is a general characteristic of both macro/microcosmos,
'Abdu'l-Bahá refers to two inherent limitations in the lower kingdoms:
[. . .] for every being there is a point which
it cannot overpass . . . A mineral, however far it may progress in the mineral
kingdom, cannot gain the vegetable power. Also in a flower, however far it may
progress in the vegetable kingdom, no power of the senses will appear. . . it
can only progress in its own condition.[125]
A lower degree cannot comprehend a higher although all are in the same world of
creation whether mineral, vegetable or animal. Degree is the barrier
and limitation.[126]
The two above stated limitations: 1) that one can only progress within one's
kingdom and, 2) that one cannot comprehend a higher kingdom, are intimately
related to the principle that "In every station there is a specialized
capacity."[127] Yet, these limitations
are not confined the lower kingdoms but are also valid for the higher kingdoms
(i.e., above Násút) mentioned previously. Human beings are
therefore incapable, due to their limited capacity, to truly comprehend the
higher kingdoms, and much less the essence, or totality, of God.[128] Despite these
inherent constraints
upon the various kingdoms, this system is not a static but on the contrary
perceived as highly dynamic and organic in its nature. Hence, the various
kingdoms coexists in what could be called a semi-permeable state or
transfer-system.[129] 'Abdu'l-Bahá
elaborates on this theme as follows:
[. . .] the atoms of the material elements are
transferable from one from of existence to another, from one degree and kingdom
to another, lower or higher. For example, an atom of the soil or dust of earth
may traverse the kingdoms from mineral to man by successive incorporations into
the bodies of the organisms of those kingdoms. At one time it enters into the
formation of the mineral or rock; it is then absorbed by the vegetable kingdom
and becomes a constituent of the body and fibre of a tree; again it is
appropriated by the animal, and at a still later period is found in the body of
a man. . . . The perfections of the mineral are translated into the vegetable
and from thence into the animal, the virtue always attaining a superlative
degree in the upward change. In each kingdom we find the same virtues
manifesting themselves more fully, proving that the reality has been
transferred from a lower to a higher form and kingdom of being.[130]
In this passage one can notice that although each level is progressive in its
own right and the boundaries of the Násút are penetrable, the
general tendency of these kingdoms is in the direction of "always attaining a
superlative degree in the upward change." This process of transference thereby
suggests an overall evolutionary or progressive notion, and 'Abdu'l-Bahá
actually refers to this process as a "progressive transference."[131] Above it was
also noticed that the
universe was not created in an instant but that it was gradually unfolded in
time. This general evolutionary process can also be seen from the perspective
of the kingdoms in their successive and gradual unfoldment. In this context
'Abdu'l-Bahá says that:
[. . .] the terrestrial globe from the beginning
was created with all its elements, substances, minerals, atoms and organisms;
but these only appeared by degrees: first the mineral, then the plant,
afterward the animal, and finally man. But from the first these kind and
species existed, but were underdeveloped in the terrestrial globe, and then
appeared only gradually.[132]
In the world of existence man has traversed successive degrees until he has
attained the human kingdom. In each degree of his progression he has developed
capacity for advancement to the next station and condition. While in the
kingdom of the mineral he was attaining the capacity for promotion into the
degree of the vegetable. In the kingdom of the vegetable he underwent
preparation for the world of the animal, and from thence he has come onward to
the human degree, or kingdom. Throughout this journey of progression he has
ever and always been potentially man.[133]
The general inclination of the whole system is that of a successive and gradual
progression towards the higher kingdoms or levels. Notice also the last
sentences in each of the quotations which states that "from the first these
kind and species existed," and "he has ever and always been potentially man."[134]
These ideas imply that all relatively
higher kingdoms (i.e., vegetable, animal and human) at one time were
potentially latent in the mineral kingdom.[135] This further suggests that the
process
of creation is guided by an orderly law ("law of progression") rather than by
fortuitous and random forces. Concomitantly, the human species is thus overall
regarded as promulgated by a teleological principle rather than seen as a rare
epiphenomenon. However, as was stated earlier, the human kingdom differs from
the lower kingdoms on several points, the most important being that the human
being is considered as primarily spiritual in that it is endowed with an
immortal soul which is "sanctified above material existence."[136] Hence, on the
Nasút level, it
is only human beings who can transfer and progress upwards to the higher
kingdoms (Malakút etc). On this point Abdu'l-Bahá says that:
God has created all earthly things under a law
of progression in material degrees, but He has created man and endowed him with
powers of advancement toward spiritual and transcendental kingdoms.[137]
When we look upon the kingdoms of creation below man, we find three forms or
planes of existence which await education and development . . . As to the human
world: It is more in need of guidance and education than the lower creatures.[138]
Previously, some aspects were enumerated which characterized human beings as
different from the lower kingdoms, and the last citation above relates to
another distinct feature. It basically implies that since humans are endowed
with consciousness and volition, they are therefore capable of violating the
laws of nature. Due to this circumstance they are also "more in need of
guidance and education than the lower creatures." Further, since human beings
are the only creatures who can transfer into the higher kingdoms, this
terrestrial life is in the Bahá'í writings often portrayed as a
preparation for the next world. In such contexts, organic metaphors which
compares the terrestrial life to the prenatal embryo are prevalent.[139] This view
further points to the need
for human beings to develop their latent spiritual capacities which,
ultimately, are bestowed by God. Yet, reaching the next world, or higher
kingdom, (the Abhá kingdom or most glorious kingdom; Malakút)
does not mean that the progress of the individual soul, or the spiritual
journey, has ended. On the contrary, the Bahá'í-texts are replete
with sections which emphasize the souls progress ad infinitum into the higher
kingdoms or planes of creation.[140] For
example, Bahá'u'lláh states:
Know thou of a truth that the soul, after its
separation from the body, will continue to progress until it attaineth the
presence of God, in a state and condition which neither the revolutions of ages
and centuries, nor the changes and chances of this world, can alter. It will
endure as long as the Kingdom of God and his attributes, and will reveal His
loving-kindness and bounty.[141]
By now it should be evident that the concept of progress is a recurrent and
important concept of Bahá'í-cosmology. Some important key terms
and concepts of Bahá'í-cosmology and theology in its relationship
with revelation can be summarized as follows: 1) The essence of God is beyond
human knowledge. However, the attributes of God can be seen as reflected in and
through creation, including human beings, 2) Creation or cosmos as a whole is
guided by a law of progress. It is highly dynamic, evolutionary, and
teleological, and one of its generating impulses was the creation of humans, 3)
The process of creation unfolds in a successive and gradual fashion, 4) Cosmos
is hierarchically structured with innumerable levels or kingdoms, which
suggests a vertical axis of apocalypticism, 5) Progress is above all possible
within a level or kingdom, and the general tendency is to transfer towards the
higher kingdoms, 6) Macrocosmos is potentially latent in the microcosmos which
can reflect the former, 7) Human beings (microcosmos) are endowed with a unique
capacity to reflect the macrocosmos, and cosmos was seen as created to manifest
the different attributes of God, 8) human beings can progress indefinitely onto
the higher kingdoms, 9) Although human beings have the capacities to progress
they are in greater need than the lower kingdoms for guidance and education,
and 10) The progressive or evolutionary character of the cosmos can also be
summarized as being: successive, gradual, and organic.
These various aspects suggests that the cosmos is the instrument (I) for the
revelation of God's attributes, a theme which will be further explored in the
next section.
3. Universal and Specific Revelation two means
of revelation
In the previous two sections the intricate relationship between
Bahá'í-theology and cosmology was briefly surveyed and it was
concluded that these two areas in turn are related to revelation. From a
theological perspective it was shown that the essence of God was described in
negative apocalyptic terms, i.e., this reality is described as being completely
veiled, or concealed, to human knowledge. Yet, the attributes, names and
kingdoms of God were seen, through the progressive process of creation, as part
of the sphere of revelation (see Appendix I). This relationship can, for
example, be seen in a prayer by Bahá'u'lláh where he depicts God
as the "Author of all Manifestations, the Source of all Sources, the
Fountainhead of all Revelations, and the Wellspring of all Lights!"[142] The plural
ending "revelations"
suggest a diversity of revelation. In fact, Bahá'u'lláh does make
a basic distinction with regard to the concept of revelation. One category of
revelation is, as the terms conveys, defined as a "universal," or a "general"
revelation.[143] Similarly, the other
category is entitled as a "specific" or "secondary" revelation.[144] The term
"secondary" also suggests
that the "universal" category of revelation is "primary." In the following
quotation Bahá'u'lláh distinguishes between these two kinds of
revelation:
Consider, for instance, the revelation of the
light of the Name of God, the Educator. Behold, how in all things the evidences
of such a revelation are manifest, how the betterment of all beings dependeth
upon it. This education is of two kinds. The one is universal. Its influence
pervadeth all things and sustaineth them. It is for this reason that God hath
assumed the title, "Lord of all worlds." The other is confined to them that
have come under the shadow of this Name, and sought the shelter of this most
mighty Revelation.[145]
In the above quote revelation is seen as a process of education and God is
referred to as "the Educator."[146] This
process of education is not only limited to human beings but includes
"inanimate" objects as well. Further, the statement "the betterment of all
things" implies a notion of progress. Not only is universal revelation seen as
the primordial cause for the betterment of all beings, but is also described as
the ultimate basis of their existence.[147]
A. Universal Revelation
Above it was noticed that this kind of revelation "pervadeth all things" which
suggests a notion of omnipresence, and hence it can be said to be universal.
Both Bahá'u'lláh and 'Abdu'l-Bahá elaborate on the theme
of universal revelation in several sections of their writings.[148] A few extracts
from the writings of
Bahá'u'lláh will further exemplify this category of revelation:
"Universal Revelation" . . . such revelation
already existeth in all things . . . all things are the recipients and
revealers of the splendours of that ideal King . . . the signs of the
revelation of that Sun, the Source of all splendour, exists and are manifest in
the mirrors of beings. Nay were man to gaze with the eye of divine and
spiritual discernment, he will readily recognize that nothing whatsoever can
exist without the revelation of the splendour of God, the ideal King. Consider
how all created things eloquently testify to the revelation of that inner Light
within them.[149]
So potent and universal is this revelation, that it hath encompassed all
things, visible and invisible. . . "No thing have I perceived, except that I
perceived God within it, God before it, or God after it."[150]
The whole universe reflecteth His glory, while He is independent of, and
transcendeth His creatures. This is the true meaning of Divine unity. He Who is
the Eternal Truth is the one Power Who exerciseth undisputed sovereignty over
the world of being, Whose image is reflected in the mirror of the entire
creation.[151]
There are a few points to notice here. In the first two examples the technical
term "universal revelation" is used whereas in the latter example this category
is only indirectly inferred. Further, one can observe that the very existence
of things are dependent upon this kind of revelation and in this sense it can
be said to be an "ontological" basis. Also, it encompasses "all things, visible
and invisible," which may be a reference to the higher, and therefore
invisible, kingdoms.[152] In the second
excerpt, Bahá'u'lláh is referring to a saying which alludes to
that God can be perceived in all things. This suggests that universal
revelation is open to human experience. The third quote also conveys the
macro/microcosmos scheme where God's image is "reflected in the mirror of the
entire creation." In this context one can notice the solar-mirror model in the
first passage where "the signs of the revelation of that Sun, the Source of all
splendour, exists and are manifest in the mirrors of beings."
The theme of universal revelation is also expressed in a more mystical and
poetic manner by Bahá'u'lláh:
How resplendent the luminaries of knowledge that
shine in an atom, and how vast the oceans of wisdom that surge within a drop![153]
Within every blade of grass are enshrined the mysteries of an inscrutable
wisdom, and upon every rose-bush a myriad nightingales pour out, in blissful
rapture, their melody. . . In every leaf ineffable delights are treasured, and
within every chamber unnumbered mysteries lie hidden.[154]
The basic and recurrent theme here is that of the macro/microcosmos scheme.
Although each being is sustained by revelation it may also reflect various
attributes of God, but as could be noticed above, this is only in accordance to
the inherent capacity.[155] Moreover, all
things are not only "recipients" of revelation but "revealers" as well, since
they are "a revelation of His names." Further, as was mentioned formerly, human
beings are viewed as unique in creation in their capacity of reflecting the
names and attributes of God. In comparison to other created things (in the
lower kingdoms of Násút), which may reflect at least one of the
names or attributes of God,[156]
Bahá'u'lláh writes: "Upon the reality of man, however, He hath
focused the radiance of all of His names and attributes, and made it a mirror
of His own Self."[157] Earlier it was
shown that the mirror-model was employed to "creation" and "beings," but here
one can observe that the mirror-model is specifically addressed to the human
kingdom. This metaphor and imagery is extremely frequent in the
Bahá'í writings and is a theme which will be addressed when
discussing the nature of the Manifestations of God.[158]
B. Specific Revelation
When examining specific revelation in relation to universal revelation
Bahá'u'lláh describes the former category as follows:
[. . .] "Specific Revelation of God" . . .
interpreted as the "Holy Outpouring," this is admittedly applicable to the
world of creation, that is, in the realm of primal and original manifestation
of God. Such revelation is confined to His Prophets and chosen Ones, inasmuch
as none mightier than they hath come to exist in the world of being.[159]
In this passage the fundamental difference between universal and specific
revelation is seen in that the latter is "confined to His Prophets and chosen
Ones."[160] This excerpt may now clarify
the passage in the beginning of this section where Bahá'u'lláh
distinguished between the two kinds of education (revelation) and stated: "The
other is confined to them that have come under the shadow of this Name." "The
other" thus indirectly refers to the Prophets mentioned above. Once again one
can see that special revelation is described as "confined" and it could
therefore be considered as a special category, or sub-category, of universal
revelation. The significance of the term "confined" may also imply that it is
only relevant, or applicable, for human beings since it was seen that the human
world is more in need of guidance and education than the lower creatures.[161] The
lower creatures (or kingdoms) are
already guided through the laws of nature which operates via universal
revelation (education). This does not mean that human beings are excluded from
universal revelation since, as was seen earlier, they are ontologically
dependent upon this category of revelation. On the contrary, special revelation
could instead be viewed as an additional and special category of revelation to
human beings.[162]
The following section, excerpted from one of Bahá'u'lláh's most
mystical writings, Haft-Vádí (The Seven Valleys), is highly
interesting since it not only uses a verse from the Qur'án and an
Hadíth, but that it indirectly contrasts specific revelation with
universal revelation:
For the heavenly wisdoms, like the clouds of
spring, will not rain down on the earth of men's hearts forever; and though the
grace of the All-Bounteous One is never stilled and never ceasing, yet to each
time and era a portion is allotted and a bounty set apart, this in a given
measure. "And no one thing is there, but with Us are its storehouses; and We
send it not down but in settled measure." [Qur'án 15:21] The cloud of
the loved One's mercy raineth only on the garden of the spirit, and bestoweth
this bounty only in the season of spring. The other seasons have no share in
this greatest grace, and barren land no portion of this favour . . . "His
beauty hath no veiling save light, His face no covering save revelation."
[Hadíth] How strange that while the Beloved is visible as the sun, yet
the heedless still hunt after tinsel and base metal. Yea, the intensity of His
revelation hath covered Him, and the fullness of His shining forth hath hidden
Him.[163]
The universal category of revelation can be observed in the phrase "though the
grace of the All-Bounteous One is never stilled and never ceasing," i.e., it is
eternal and perpetual. The specific category of revelation can be seen as
contrasted with the universal since it is viewed as periodical, "to each time
and era,"[164] and "a portion is
allotted," or that it is revealed in "a given" or "settled measure." Notice the
metaphor with the "clouds of spring" which "will not rain down . . . forever."
This is another way that the term "confined" could be interpreted in that
special revelation is seen as "confined," or limited, to a certain
time-period.[165] The solar-cloud
metaphor can also be observed here, and in other contexts, where
Bahá'u'lláh is using this model in that the clouds hides, or
veils, the true nature of the sun.[166]
In the passage above Bahá'ulláh (probably referring to himself)
writes that "the Beloved is visible as the sun" but "the intensity of His
revelation hath covered Him." This statement also conveys the hidden, or
concealed, aspect of revelation.
Another highly important concept is introduced here in that specific revelation
is not disclosed instantaneously in its entirety, but that it is revealed in "a
given measure." This concept is related to another key term and concept, that
of capacity,[167] which has been mention
earlier. This recurrent theme in the Bahá'í-texts states that
revelation is given to humans: "in direct proportion to their spiritual
capacity;" "to the extent of their station," "in proportion to their ability to
sustain the burden of His message;" "to a degree corresponding to the capacity
of the people of Our age;" "in strict conformity with such conditions as have
been foreordained by Him Who is the All-Knowing," "that would best meet the
requirements of the age," and "according to the language of the people of
creation."[168]
Concomitantly, in the following excerpt Bahá'ulláh, again using
the solar-model, is demonstrating what would happen if the total quantity of
revelation would be revealed immediately:
[. . .] if the Sun of Truth were suddenly to
reveal, at the earliest stages of its manifestation, the full measure of the
potencies which the providence of the Almighty hath bestowed upon it, the earth
of human understanding would waste away and be consumed; for men's hearts would
neither sustain the intensity of its revelation, nor be able to mirror forth
the radiance of its light. Dismayed and overpowered, they would cease to
exist.[169]
Here one may notice that in the first excerpt the manifestation is described in
"stages," a key term and concept which shall be discussed in other contexts. In
addition, Bahá'u'lláh further states that if revelation would not
be in accordance to capacity: "mortal eyes would be blinded by the dazzling
intensity of His revelation;" or "all created things would be so dazzled and
thunderstruck by the evidences of His light as to be reduced to utter
nothingness."[170]
There seems to be yet another reason why revelation is not given abruptly in
its full measure:
Were the Eternal Essence to manifest all that is
latent within Him, were He to shine in the plentitude of His glory, none would
be found to question His power or repudiate His truth.[171]
In this and other sections Bahá'u'lláh indicates that God's
revelation to humanity also serves as a test or a judgment.[172] Here the third
category in the
apocalyptic actors (R) the receivers is briefly touched
upon, and it can be summarized that the revelation is given and received
according to human; 1) capacity or station, and 2) circumstances, conditions,
requirements and language, and 3) in order to test or judge mankind. Some of
these themes shall further be develop when the concept of progressive
revelation is to be examined.
Although the above indicates that revelation is in accordance to the three
areas above, Bahá'u'lláh also states that "He Who is the Eternal
Truth manifesteth Himself in conformity with that which He Himself hath
purposed, and not according to the desires and expectations of men."[173] In this
paragraph revelation is seen
as being in conformity with God's purpose which may, or may not, be in
consonance with what humanity sees as its own purpose. Further, one can observe
that although revelation may be in accordance with the above stated areas, it
may not be in harmony with how humanity may desire or expect God to reveal
himself.
To summarize: revelation can, according to Bahá'u'lláh, be
divided into two main categories, one primary or universal revelation and one
secondary or specific revelation. The latter seems to be a sub-category of the
former since it appears to be confined to the human realm. Yet, all created
things in the cosmos, including humans, are ontologically dependent upon
universal revelation. As will be shown below, one of the central topics of this
thesis, the concept of progressive revelation, falls under the category of
specific revelation.[174] Further, as was
seen above, one central feature of specific revelation is the concept of a
Prophet of God. It is therefore vital to briefly survey and analyze some of the
most salient aspects of Bahá'í-prophetology before delving into
the topic of progressive revelation.
4. Prophetology the mediation of revelation
In the introduction of this thesis the tripartite model of the actors of
revelation was defined as: 1) sender, source (S), 2) messenger, mediator (M),
and 3) receiver(s), recipient(s) (R). In the sections above, the first actor
God (S) was discussed in Bahá'í-theology,
and the third actor(s) humanity (R) was briefly touched
upon in the former section on Universal and Specific Revelation. In order to
more fully understand Bahá'í-apocalypticism and the concept of
progressive revelation, it is in this section necessary to devote some analysis
to the second actor of this structure the Bahá'í
concept of mediation of revelation (M) which revolves around the
prophet or messenger of God.
In the following examples, Bahá'u'lláh explains the need of a
mediator between the Godly and the human realms, which further exemplifies the
tripartite structure of revelation (S-M-R) :
[. . .] since there can be no tie of direct
intercourse to bind the one true God with His creation, and no resemblance
whatever can exist between the transient and the Eternal, the contingent and
the Absolute, He [God] hath ordained that in every age and dispensation a pure
and stainless Soul be made manifest in the kingdoms of earth and heaven.[175]
[. . .] in the kingdoms of earth and heaven there must needs be manifested a
Being, an Essence Who shall act as a Manifestation and Vehicle for the
transmission of the grace of the Divinity Itself, the Sovereign Lord of
all.[176]
The sentence "a pure and stainless Soul" alludes to the prophet or messenger of
God (M). This "Soul" is to be "made manifest" not only in the kingdom of earth
but in heaven as well. Notice that this soul is to be made "manifest" which
suggests some form of appearance. The reasoning that Bahá'u'lláh
is applying here is similar to what was stated earlier in the section on
universal and special revelation in that there can be no direct relationship
between the essence of God (S) and his creation (creatures) (R). Hence, some
indirect form of mediation (M) between these separate realms must be
established. The statement that this "Being" is manifested "in the kingdoms of
earth and heaven" can symbolize that the messenger either occupies a dual
nature or station, or that the messenger has access to both realms, the
terrestrial and the celestial.
A. The Prophets, Messengers, or Manifestations of God
The Prophet, or Messenger, of God is usually referred to as a "Manifestation of
God."[177] The Manifestation of God[178] is, according to J. Cole
(1982), at
the center of the teachings of the Bahá'í-religion.[179] This
conclusion may be arrived at by
inference from studying the various Bahá'í-texts, but Cole does
not support this statement directly from the Bahá'í-writings
themselves. It may be correct to state the concept of the Manifestation of God
plays a central role in the Bahá'í-religion, but this concept, as
will be shown, is part of a much larger and more central concept
that of progressive revelation which ultimately is subordinate to
the system of Bahá'í-apocalypticism.[180]
The terms Prophet and Messenger are frequently employed by especially
Bahá'u'lláh and 'Abdu'l-Bahá, but the term "Manifestation
of God" appears to be the most common epithet used by all three
Bahá'í-authors. The terms Prophet, and Messenger, of God are
sometimes also used synonymously.[181]
For example, Bahá'u'lláh writes in the same sentence that "all
the Prophets of God, His well-favored, His holy and chosen Messengers are,
without exception, the bearers of His names, and the embodiments of His
attributes."[182] The terminology which
is connected with the Manifestations of God[183] is rather exhaustive. The
following
citation by Bahá'u'lláh may illustrate the abundant and complex
variety of titles which are associated with this concept:
It hath, therefore, become manifest and evident
that within the tabernacles of these Prophets and chosen Ones of God the light
of His infinite names and exalted attributes hath been reflected, even though
the light of some of these attributes may or may not be outwardly revealed from
these luminous Temples to the eyes of men. That a certain attribute of God hath
not been outwardly manifested by these Essences of Detachment doth in no wise
imply that they who are the Day Springs of God's attributes and the Treasuries
of His holy names did not actually possess it. Therefore, these illuminated
Souls, these beauteous Countenances have, each and every one of them, been
endowed with all the attributes of God.[184]
In addition to the above stated designations, Bahá'u'lláh
entitles the Manifestation of God as: "Tabernacles of holiness," "Primal
Mirrors," "Essences of Being," "Day Stars of His divine guidance," "symbols of
His divine unity," "sanctified Beings," "Manifestations of His wondrous
Essence," "the Luminaries of truth," "Manifestations of the Sun of Truth,"
"Manifestations of Holiness," "Birds of the celestial Throne" etc. Notice the
various metaphors of "mirror," "sun," and "bird." Further, the concept of
"manifestation" occurs also in connection with other epithets. In the next
passage Bahá'u'lláh enumerates various titles of the
Manifestations of God and states that they are all essentially identical:
By virtue of this station they have claimed for
themselves the Voice of Divinity and the like, whilst by virtue of their
station of Messengership, they have declared themselves the Messengers of God.
In every instance they have voiced an utterance that would conform to the
requirements of the occasion, and have ascribed all these declarations to
Themselves, declarations ranging from the realm of Divine Revelation to the
realm of creation, and from the domain of Divinity even unto the domain of
earthly existence. Thus it is that whatsoever be their utterance, whether it
pertain to the realm of Divinity, Lordship, Prophethood, Messengership,
Guardianship, Apostleship, or Servitude, all is true, beyond the shadow of a
doubt.[185]
Notice also that the Manifestations of God "have voiced an utterance that would
conform to the requirements of the occasion," which connotes to the above
stated concept of receptivity according to capacity. Although
Bahá'u'lláh above seems to include a variety of titles under the
epithet of Manifestation of God, in his Kitáb-i-Íqán, he
elevates the "prophet endowed with constancy" who have revealed a "Book" and
which suggests the advent of a new revelation and the establishment of a new
religion.[186] 'Abdu'l-Bahá is
more explicit on this point since he clearly distinguishes between two kinds of
prophets:
Universally, the prophets are of two kinds. One
are the independent Prophets Who are followed; the other kind are not
independent and are themselves followers. The independent Prophets are the
lawgivers and the founders of a new cycle . . . The Manifestations of universal
Prophethood Who appeared independently are, for example, Abraham, Moses,
Christ, Muhammad, the Báb and Bahá'u'lláh. But the others
who are followers and promoters are like Solomon, David, Isiah, Jeremiah and
Ezekiel. For the independent Prophets are founders; They establish a new
religion and make new creatures of men; They change the general morals, promote
new customs and rules, renew the cycle and the Law. Their appearance is like
the season of spring, which arrays all earthly beings in a new garment, and
give them a new life. With regard to the second sort of Prophets who are
followers, these also promote the Law of God, make known the Religion of God,
and proclaim His word. Of themselves they have no power and might, except what
they receive from the independent Prophets.[187]
Here one can see an important difference in that the "independent Prophets"
(Abraham to Bahá'u'lláh) are "founders" of "a new religion."[188]
This kind of prophets are also
referred to as "universal Prophets."[189]
The "second sort of Prophets" are dependent upon the former for whom they are
"followers and promoters." In other words, the latter kind of prophets (Salomon
to Ezekiel),[190] do not establish a new
religion since they do not reveal a "Book." They do, however, "promote the Law
of God" and "make known the Religion of God." Consequently, only the "prophet
endowed with constancy," or the "independent Prophets," are upheld as
Manifestations of God.
In the example above 'Abdu'l-Bahá enumerates six universal Prophets, or
Manifestations of God, but other sources mention additional religious figures,
and therefore the following names can be added to the sequence: Adam, Noah,
Krishna, Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Húd, Sálih, Christ,
Muhammad, the Báb and Bahá'u'lláh.[191] Nevertheless,
although the above
mentioned, and more or less well-known, religious figures are regarded as
Manifestations of God, the Bahá'í-authors do not specify a
limited number of Prophets. On the contrary, the number of Manifestations of
God appears to be unknown. On this theme Bahá'u'lláh states:
[. . .] the Manifestations of His Divine Glory .
. . have been sent down from time immemorial, and been commissioned to summon
mankind to the one true God. That the names of some of them are forgotten and
the records of their lives lost is to be attributed to the disturbances and
changes that have overtaken the world.[192]
[. . .] the manifold bounties of the Lord of all beings have, at all times,
through the Manifestations of His divine Essence, encompassed the earth and all
that dwell therein. Not for a moment hath his grace been withheld, nor have the
showers of His loving-kindness ceased to rain upon mankind.[193]
Similarly 'Abdu'l-Bahá writes that:
[. . .] there have been many holy Manifestations
of God. One thousand years ago, two hundred thousand years ago, one million
years ago, the bounty of God was flowing, the radiance of God was shining, the
dominion of God was existing.[194]
From these examples it should be clear that the forgoing mentioned number of
six Manifestations of God is not an exclusive number, since
Bahá'u'lláh states that they "have been sent down from time
immemorial," "in every age," and even that "the names of some of them are
forgotten." Similarly, the quote by 'Abdu'l-Bahá above supports this
conclusion since he states that the Manifestations of God existed even as far
back as "a million years ago."[195] The
appearance of a Manifestation of God, according to this view of prophetology,
may be a rare event, but it is not a unique phenomenon in the history of
mankind. Although the list of religious figures above seems to be limited to
the Near- and Far East regions, it is possible to interpret the sentence
"encompassed the earth" as an allusion to a global scheme of revelation. In
addition, Bahá'u'lláh says: "Unto the cities of all nations He
hath sent His Messengers."[196]
Consequently, the revelatory process does not seem to be restricted to any
specific time period or geographic locality.
The examples above are predominantly oriented toward the past and hence it is
relevant to turn the attention to the future perspective of the Manifestations
of God. In his Súriy-i-Sabr, Bahá'u'lláh addresses this
issue and states that:
God hath sent
down His Messengers to succeed to Moses and Jesus, and He will continue to do
so till 'the end that hath no end'; so that His grace may, from the heaven of
Divine bounty, be continually vouchsafed to mankind.[197]
Thus, one can conclude that the Manifestations of God are neither limited to
the past nor to the future but that the process of specific revelation is seen
as ongoing and perpetual. This temporal theme will be further discussed in the
subsequent sections dealing with the "Succession and Continuity of Religions"
and "The cyclical scheme."
B. The nature and stations of the Manifestation of God
In order to understand Bahá'í-prophetology more fully it is also
necessary to examine the nature of the Manifestation of God and to compare
him[198] to the human being and to God.
For example, in his Qasídih-yi 'izz-i varqá'iyyih,
Bahá'u'lláh explains that the Manifestation of God has both an
inward and outward aspect.[199] In
addition, Bahá'u'lláh has devoted a whole tablet, Tablet of the
Manifestation (Lawh-i Zuhúr), where he elaborates upon the nature of the
Manifestation of God. He opens his exposition by stating that:
[. . .] the "Manifestation" is not composed of
the four elements (earth, water, fire and air), nay, rather, He is the Mystery
of Oneness, of the Ancient Identity, the Eternal Essence and the Unknowable
Reality, and that, verily, He can never be known by any other save Himself.
Therefore, one can never realize that He hath appeared from any of the four
elements, or from any of the substances mentioned by the tongues of
philosophers, or from any of the four expressions of nature, such as heat,
cold, dry and wet, inasmuch as all these are created by His Command and
Will.[200]
From this example it is clear that Bahá'u'lláh implies that the
essence of the Manifestation of God cannot be reduced to the four elements but
that he is comprised of a completely different substance than that of the
ordinary human being. However, further in his Lawh-i Zuhúr he continues
to describe the body of the Manifestation of God, and this time he states
that:
As to the bodies, verily, they are as thrones
for His Manifestation, of which no one is informed save Himself! These bodies
although they have appeared in the world of creation, in the Temple in which ye
have been informed of (Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, etc.), yet were ye to gaze upon
them with the eye of reality and innate consciousness, ye would testify that
although they are created from the elements, yet they are sanctified from them
to such an extent that there is no similitude between them.[201]
When depicting the bodies of the Manifestation of God as "thrones" or "temples"
Bahá'u'lláh now seem to admit that they are "created from the
elements" and that they have "appeared in the world of creation." This appears
to be contradictory to the first example where Bahá'u'lláh
described that the Manifestations of God as not being composed of the four
elements. However, the second example continues to say that although the
Manifestations of God are composed of the elements they are "sanctified from
them to such an extent that there is no similitude between them." Subsequently,
in the Lawh-i Zuhúr, Bahá'u'lláh makes an implicit
comparison between a diamond and a stone. It is possible to infer from the
context of this metaphor that the former is attributed to the Manifestation of
God and the latter to the human being. Although both bodies share similar
properties the metaphor conveys a sense of value in that the diamond possess
qualities which are deficient in the stone.
Earlier it was shown that both Bahá'u'lláh and
'Abdu'l-Bahá made distinctions between two types of revelation and
Prophets, and to clarify the above stated dichotomy between the Manifestation
of God and the human being, Bahá'u'lláh also assigns a dual
nature, or station, to the Manifestation of God. In his
Kitáb-i-Íqán (The Book of Certitude),
Bahá'u'lláh delineates this distinctions as follows:
These Manifestations of God have each a twofold
station. One is the station of pure abstraction and essential unity. In this
respect, if thou callest them all by one name, and dost ascribe unto them the
same attributes, thou hast not erred from the truth. Even as He hath revealed:
"No distinction do We make between any of His Messengers." . . . This
Revelation is exalted above the veils of plurality and the exigencies of
number. Thus He saith: "Our Cause is but One." Inasmuch as the Cause is one and
the same, the Exponents thereof also must needs be one and the same.[202]
Know thou assuredly that the essence of all the Prophets of God is one and the
same. Their unity is absolute. God, the Creator, saith: There is no distinction
whatsoever among the Bearers of My Message. They all have but one purpose;
their secret is the same secret.[203]
In both examples above Bahá'u'lláh is clearly drawing upon the
Qur'án[204] and is agreeing that
from one perspective no distinction should be made between the messengers of
God. Hence, he refers to this station as "pure abstraction and essential unity"
of the Manifestation of God. Notice that in the second quote,
Bahá'u'lláh says that it is the "essence of all the Prophets of
God" which is identical. Further, he states that they have the same "Cause,"
"purpose," and "attributes."
Subsequently in the Kitáb-i-Íqán,
Bahá'u'lláh explains the second station of the Manifestation of
God:
[. . .] the station of distinction . . .
pertaineth to the world of creation and to the limitations thereof. In this
respect, each Manifestation of God hath a distinct individuality, a definitely
prescribed mission, a predestined Revelation, and specially designated
limitations. Each one of them is known by a different name, is characterized by
a special attribute, fulfils a definite Mission, and is entrusted with a
particular Revelation.[205]
Here it is possible to discern a clear difference between the station of
essential unity and that of distinction, and what is particularly evident in
the station of distinction is the emphasis on limitations. By combining the
findings from the Qasídih-yi 'izz-i varqá'iyyih, the Lawh-i
Zuhúr, and the Kitáb-i-Íqán, one can contrast and
structure the two stations as follows:
Table 3 (online appearance somewhat
distorted)
station of essential unity (esoteric)
inward aspect
uncreated, sanctified from the elements
essence (heaven)
absolute unity
essentially identical (no distinctions)
the same name
one Cause/Purpose
the Revelation is exalted
above the veils of plurality
the same attributes
(no limitations) |
station of distinction (exoteric)
outward aspect
bodies created by the elements
creation (earth)
distinction
a distinct individuality
a different name
a prescribed/definite Mission
a predestined/particular
Revelation
a special attribute
specially designated limitations |
It was mentioned earlier that the Manifestation of God was manifested "in the
kingdoms of earth and heaven" and the above scheme probably refers to this
dichotomy. Yet, in this context Bahá'u'lláh also states: "They
[the Manifestations] were created before the creation of heaven and earth."[206]
Consequently, this is another feature
which distinguishes the Manifestation of God from the human being in that the
former is seen as preexistent whereas human life originates at the moment of
conception.
In other contexts Bahá'u'lláh portrays the dual nature of the
Manifestations of God in a more indirect and mystical manner:
Unto this subtle, this mysterious and ethereal
Being He hath assigned a twofold nature; the physical, pertaining to the world
of matter, and the spiritual, which is born of the substance of God Himself.[207]
These ancient Beings, though delivered from the womb of their mother, have in
reality descended from the heaven of the will of God. Though they be dwelling
on this earth, yet their true habitations are the retreats of glory in the
realms above. Whilst walking amongst mortals, they soar in the heaven of the
divine presence. Without feet they tread the path of the spirit, and without
wings they rise unto the exalted heights of divine unity. With every fleeting
breath they cover the immensity of space, and at every moment traverse the
kingdoms of the visible and the invisible.[208]
Here Bahá'u'lláh contrasts the physical and material nature of
the Manifestation of God with the spiritual, "which is born of the substance of
God Himself," and although they are born a physical birth, they have
nevertheless "descended from heaven," and are capable of traversing the various
kingdoms both the visible (material) and the invisible
(spiritual).
In like manner, 'Abdu'l-Bahá also makes a similar differentiation of the
Manifestation of God, but instead of making a dual distinction he enumerates
three different stations; 1) the physical, 2) the human, and 3) the divine:
Know that the Holy Manifestations . . . speaking
generally, have only three stations. The first station is the physical; the
second station is the human, which is that of the rational soul; the third is
that of the divine appearance and the heavenly splendor. The physical station
is phenomenal; it is composed of elements, and necessarily everything that is
composed is subject to decomposition. It is not possible that a composition
should not be disintegrated. The second is the station of the rational soul,
which is the human reality. This also is phenomenal, and the Holy
Manifestations share it with all mankind. . . The third station is that of the
divine appearance and heavenly splendor: it is the Word of God, the Eternal
Bounty, the Holy Spirit.[209]
Although 'Abdu'l-Bahá makes this additional distinction, it only appears
to be a further division within the station of distinction, i.e., the first
(physical) and second (human) stations can, by comparing them to
Bahá'u'lláh's passage above, be viewed as subdivisions.
Consequently, the first two stations both pertain to the realm of "creation"
and could therefore be included within the station of distinction. The third
station (the divine) could, in turn, be seen as identical with the station of
essential unity where the Manifestation of God is equated with the "Word of
God" and the "Holy Spirit" which emanates from God, or is "born of the
substance of God Himself." 'Abdu'l-Bahá also agrees with
Bahá'u'lláh that the Manifestation of God is preexistent.[210] In
addition, Bahá'u'lláh
and 'Abdu'l-Bahá further states that the Manifestation of God is
essentially infallible and that he is endowed with innate knowledge.[211] Hence,
one can complement Table 3
above with the following additions by Bahá'u'lláh and
'Abdu'l-Bahá:
Table 4 (online appearance somewhat
distorted)
divine station human and physical stations
(essential unity, esoteric) (distinction, exoteric)
spiritual physical, material
born of the substance delivered by the wombs of their mothers
of God Himself; descended
from heaven
immortal, preexistent phenomenal, composed of elements,
mortal, subject to decomposition
Holy Spirit, Word of God human soul, rational soul
essential infallibility can acquire infallibility
(Most Great Infallibility)
possesses innate, divine can acquire knowledge
knowledge
soars in heaven and dwells on earth, walks among mortals
can traverse between
all the kingdoms
The two tables summarize the nature and stations of the Manifestation of God.
From this structural analysis one can observe that, with regard to the right
columns, the Manifestation of God shares the same qualities, abilities, and
limitations, with the rest of humanity. However, the left columns depicts the
Manifestation of God as belonging to a completely different dimension or
reality. Since the right columns are associated with limitations, distinctions,
and plurality, this station has in this thesis equated with the exoteric
dimension. Similarly, since the left columns portray the manifestation of God
as existing beyond the time/space continuum, this station has been equated with
the esoteric dimension. As will be shown in this thesis, the former station is
intimately related to the horizontal axis whereas the latter station is
primarily connected with the vertical axis of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism (See Appendix I and II).
Previously it was concluded that special revelation is a sub-category of
universal revelation and that the former is especially "confined" to the human
realm since the lower kingdoms (in Násút) where seen as guided by
the laws of nature (universal revelation). However, in the Lawh-i Zuhúr,
Bahá'u'lláh does make a few surprising references that the
Manifestation of God is not confined solely to the human realm:
In every world, He [the Manifestation of God]
appears according to the capacity of that world. For example, in the world of
spirits He manifests Himself to them and appears unto them with the signs of
the Spirit. So, likewise, in bodies in the world of names and attributes; and
in the worlds which are not known to any save God. All of these worlds have
their position from this Manifestation. He appears unto them in His Form, so
that He, their Lord, may direct them, and draw them nearer to the seat of His
Command, and cause them to attain to that which was ordained for them. As His
Reality is not known, so likewise all that is related to Him is not known,
except to a certain degree.[212]
[. . .] all in heaven and earth are created from Their Outward Temples, and
that all the worlds of the Lord seek help from the Manifestation of God, the
Protector, the Self-Subsistent![213]
Here the Manifestation of God appears in "every world," albeit according to
capacity, and "all the worlds" seek his help." Consequently, the Manifestation
of God seem to reveal himself, in the appropriate form and manner, even in the
higher kingdoms, or "in the world of spirits" (Malakút etc). It is
therefore possible to draw the conclusion that if one would interpret the
meaning of the Manifestation of God with its essential nature, i.e., as the
Holy Spirit,[214] it is plausible to
evaluate these examples in the context of both universal and specific
revelation. The sentence: "all in heaven and earth are created from Their
Outward Temples," could then be interpreted that all beings are created by the
Holy Spirit, or by universal revelation. It would then follow that each world
would also have its own "specific" revelation and that God, via the Holy
Spirit, could manifest himself as, e.g., an animal in the animal kingdom and as
a spirit in the spiritual world etc. Notice also that in the first section that
although "His Reality is not known," "likewise all that is related to Him is
not known." These two sentences could be explicated as referring the essence of
God, and the totality of God's attributes, which may be known only to a
"certain degree," i.e., according to capacity. That God reveals himself
according to each station, or capacity, can be seen in the next examples of
Bahá'u'lláh's writings:
He Who is everlastingly hidden from the eyes of
men can never be known except through His Manifestation, and His Manifestation
can adduce no greater proof of the truth of His Mission than the proof of His
own Person.[215]
His Manifestation for His creatures has ever been through His creatures.[216]
Previously it was concluded that God can be known in three ways; through
creation, the human being, and via the Manifestation of God. Yet, the first
paragraph seems to suggest that the third way would be the only alternative.
Another way to interpret this is that the first two ways belong to the
universal category of revelation and are therefore indirect. The third way
would therefore belong to the specific category of revelation which is direct.
Consequently, for God to communicate directly with his human creatures, he
must, via the Holy Spirit (station of essential unity), manifest himself as, or
via, a human being (station of distinction).[217] However,
Bahá'u'lláh
states that although this is the only way God can directly communicate with
human beings, they become "deluded by the appearance of the peerless and
everlasting Beauty in the garb of mortal men," and thus they may even fail to
recognize him.[218]
As was stated formerly, each created thing can only comprehend God according to
its capacity, and if the amount or process of revelation would be too great or
too sudden, this would be unbearable or even devastating to the creatures.[219]
Hence, Bahá'u'lláh
continues in his Lawh-i Zuhúr to explain: "Verily, were God the Exalted
to appear in His (proper) grade and form, and in a manner befitting His
Station, no one could ever approach Him or endure to be near Him."[220]
Similarly, 'Abdu'l-Bahá writes
that the "unseen Reality that embraceth all beings, and that existeth and
revealeth itself in all stages, the essence whereof is beyond the grasp of the
mind."[221]
Although this manifestation and revelation at first appears to be pantheistic,
it was earlier stated that God "can in no wise incarnate His Essence."[222] As will
be shown below, the essence of
God is instead viewed as a "reflection," or "emanation," while the essence
never manifests itself in creation. In order to clarify this obscure point it
is necessary to examine the Manifestation of God by comparing him to both God
and man.[223]
C. The Manifestation of God between God and man
It was previously stated in the section on Bahá'í-theology that
the essence of God is considered to be concealed to all created things, and yet
the Manifestation of God is preexistent and referred to as a manifestation of
God. Consequently, it is appropriately to examine whether the Manifestation of
God in anyway is identical to God or not. Bahá'u'lláh is
addressing this issue in the Kitáb-i-Íqán where he
paradoxically states that:
Were any of the all-embracing Manifestations of
God to declare: "I am God!" He verily speaketh the truth, and no doubt
attacheth thereto. For it hath been repeatedly demonstrated that through their
Revelation, their attributes and names, the Revelation of God, His name and His
attributes, are made manifest in the world. . . . And were any of them to voice
the utterance: "I am the Messenger of God," He also speaketh the truth, the
indubitable truth.[224]
In contrast to this statement, Bahá'u'lláh also emphatically
states that:
Ten thousand Prophets, each a Moses, are
thunderstruck upon the Sinai of their search at His forbidding voice, "Thou
shalt never behold Me!"; whilst a myriad Messengers, each as great as Jesus,
stand dismayed upon their heavenly thrones by the indiction, "Mine Essence thou
shalt never apprehend!" From time immemorial He hath been veiled in the
ineffable sanctity of His exalted Self, and will everlastingly continue to be
wrapt in the impenetrable mystery of His unknowable
Essence.[225]
In the first passage Bahá'u'lláh clearly states that it would be
equally valid to state that the Manifestation of God is identical with God as
to denote him as a Messenger of God. Yet, in the second section
Bahá'u'lláh vividly portrays the utter impossibility of the
Manifestation of God of comprehending the essence of God. Notice that the Self
of God is not only "veiled" since time immemorial, but that it is moreover an
"ineffable" and "impenetrable mystery." Close analysis of the two sections, and
by reading in them in the context of other Bahá'í-texts, reveals
that this enigma only is apparent. Notice in the first section that the above
stated identity between the Manifestation of God and God only is "through their
Revelation, their attributes and names, the Revelation of God, His name and His
attributes," and that these "are made manifest in the world." In other words,
although the Manifestation of God is completely unable to comprehend the
essence of God he can, albeit, in that he is a mediator of God, reflect and
manifest God's attributes and names. In a previous section it was also seen
that the "true meaning of Divine unity" was seen in that the "whole universe
reflecteth His glory, while He is independent of, and transcendeth His
creatures."[226]
In the Kitáb-i-Íqán, Bahá'u'lláh discusses
the first passage above in parallel with the two stations of the Manifestation
of God. In this immediate context it is possible to infer that the station of
essential unity points to a unity, or identity, with God, whereas the second
station refers to the notion of duality, or distinction, between God and the
Manifestation of God. These levels are also found when
Bahá'u'lláh contrasts the two stations within himself:
When I contemplate, O My God, the relationship
that bindeth me to thee, I am moved to proclaim to all created things 'Verily I
am God!'; and when I consider my own self, lo, I find it coarser than clay![227]
Notice here that although Bahá'u'lláh is referring to an identity
(station of unity, esoteric) he is still speaking of a "relationship" with God
in dualistic terms. Further, when considering his own "self," he is comparing
it to "clay," a metaphor which is highly suggestive in portraying his human
and/or physical nature (station of distinction, exoteric). In another contexts
of his writings, Bahá'u'lláh discusses the issue of "Divine
unity" as follows:
The essence of belief in Divine unity consisteth
in regarding Him Who is the Manifestation of God and Him Who is the invisible,
the inaccessible, the unknowable Essence as one and the same. By this is meant
that whatever pertaineth to the former, all His acts and doings, whatever He
ordaineth or forbiddeth, should be considered, in all their aspects, and under
all circumstances, and without any reservation, as identical with the Will of
God Himself. This is the loftiest station to which a true believer in the unity
of God can ever hope to attain. Blessed is the man that reacheth this station,
and is of them that are steadfast in their belief.[228]
In this passage it is possible to observe that the emphasis of the identity
with God does not lie on an ontological level but exists rather on a
performative and ethical plane. Bahá'u'lláh is stressing God's
"acts and doings" (performative), and "whatever He ordaineth or forbiddeth"
(ethical), and not that their beings are identical (ontological). The
performative and ethical dimension can also be seen as integral to the term
the "Will of God."
In his final work, The Epistle to the Son of the Wolf,
Bahá'u'lláh is also referring to the theme of Divine unity, but
this time in more personal terms:
This station is the station in which one dieth
to himself and liveth in God. Divinity, whenever I mention it, indicateth My
complete and absolute self-effacement. This is the station in which I have no
control over mine own weal or woe nor over my life nor over my
resurrection.[229]
Once again, the emphasis of identity with God does not have an ontological
status but lies rather on a level of surrender, or "annihilation," of the ego
(lower self). Above it was concluded that the Manifestation of God's identity
with God was on a performative and ethical plane. However, it is also possible
to further distinguish between the performative/ethical dimension and the
epistemological dimension, i.e., the Manifestation of God may be completely
incapable of comprehending the essence of God, but due to his role as a
mediator, he is still able to reflect the attributes or names of God through
his obedience and actions. Earlier it was seen that the Manifestations of God
embody all the human attributes (station of distinction). It was also noted
that one characteristic which was unique to the human beings is the attribute
of volition. In the last section above it was also observed that
Bahá'u'lláh expressed his lack of control over his own "weal . .
woe . . . life . . . resurrection."[230]
This brings us to the question of free will with the regard to the
Manifestation of God. On this issue Bahá'u'lláh says:
[. . . ] of all men, the most accomplished, the
most distinguished and the most excellent are the Manifestations of the Sun of
Truth. Nay, all else besides these Manifestations, live by the operation of
their Will, and move and have their being through the outpourings of their
grace. . . . Human tongue can never befittingly sing their praise, and human
speech can never unfold their mystery. These Tabernacles of holiness, these
primal Mirrors which reflect the light of unfading glory, are but expressions
of Him Who is the Invisible of the Invisibles. By the revelation of these gems
of divine virtue all the names and attributes of God, such as knowledge and
power, sovereignty and dominion, mercy and wisdom, glory, bounty and grace, are
made manifest.[231]
There are a couple of points that should be mentioned here. First, the
Manifestations of God are viewed as superior to the ordinary human beings, and
this was also seen when the station of essential unity was examined. Secondly,
the Manifestations of God, although they share the free volition on the human
level, do not "live by the operation of their Will," but rather according to
the "Will of God." From this perspective the Manifestations of God are, in a
limited sense, "identical" to God in that they are mediators of the Will of
God. Third, human beings can not fully understand, nor properly describe, the
Manifestations of God. Finally, the Manifestations of God are considered as
"primal Mirrors" in that they are expressions of God, and by their "revelation
. . . all the names and attributes of God. . . are made manifest." However, in
Bahá'í-cosmology the macro/microcosm scheme was discussed and it
was concluded that every man also had the unique ability to reflect and
manifest "all of His [God's] names and attributes."[232] Consequently, the question
that
emerges here is as follows: if human beings and the Manifestation of God both
are able to reflect and manifest all the names and attributes of God, where
lies the significant difference?
According to Cole (1982), the Manifestation of God does not manifest, or
reflect, the essence of God, but rather the attributes of God. For example,
Cole writes:
In spite of the clear statements in
Bahá'u'lláh's writings attributing the station of divinity to the
manifestation of God, we should underscore that such a station derives from
being a manifestation of the divine attributes rather than the essence of
God.[233]
[. . .] Bahá'u'lláh does sometimes talk of the manifestation of
the essence of God. But in light of his frequent disclaimers that the divine
essence can be manifested, we must take this as an abbreviated way of speaking
of the attributes of the essence of God.[234]
It is interesting that Cole is both indirectly and directly admitting that
Bahá'u'lláh is referring to the Manifestation of God as the
"manifestation of the essence of God."[235] Yet, he does not support this
conclusion that it is only the names and attributes of God that are revealed
and manifested with any direct evidence from the Bahá'í-texts.
However, what could speak in favor of Cole's conclusion is a statement like the
following by Bahá'u'lláh:
Know thou of a certainty that the Unseen can in
no wise incarnate His Essence and reveal it unto men. He is, and hath ever
been, immensely exalted beyond all that can either be recounted or
perceived.[236]
If one interprets the first line: "the Unseen can in no wise incarnate His
Essence and reveal it unto men" as one indivisible whole, then it is certainly
possible to conclude that God does not reveal "His Essence" unto men. Still, it
is in fact possible to find lines by Bahá'u'lláh which states the
very opposite:
[. . .] in every age and Dispensation, whenever
the invisible Essence was revealed in the person of His Manifestation . . .[237]
It is also conceivable to interpret the first section above as following: "the
Unseen" [the essence of God] can not reveal itself by incarnating its essence,
but it does reveal its essence through the process of emanation and reflection.
On this theme 'Abdu'l-Bahá writes the following:
The Real Speaker, the Essence of Unity, has
always been in one condition, which neither changes nor alters, has neither
transformation nor vicissitude. He is the Eternal, the Immortal. Therefore, the
proceeding of the human spirits from God is through emanation.[238]
Here 'Abdu'l-Bahá clearly indicates that although the "Essence of Unity"
(the essence of God) is immutable, yet, human spirits proceed from God through
the process of emanation.
During his visit to Paris 'Abdu'l-Bahá gave a few public speeches which
subsequently have been recorded and collected as his Paris Talks.[239] During one
of these talks he comments
upon the Gospel statement "He that hath seen Me hath seen the
Father"[240] -and explains this as "God
manifested in man." In this speech, and in another talk entitled, The Holy
Spirit, The Intermediary Power Between God and man, 'Abdu'l-Bahá uses
the solar-mirror model to elucidate these mystical relationships. In this model
the sun symbolizes the essence, or totality, of God, the rays of the sun the
emanation of the holy spirit, and the Manifestations of God "a perfectly
polished Mirror." The significance of this solar-mirror model is that the sun
does not descend into the mirror, i.e., God does not incarnate into the
Manifestation of God. Yet, the sun's rays emanate into the mirror, i.e., God's
attributes are perfectly reflected and manifested in the Manifestation of God
via the emanations of the holy spirit. Consequently, the sentence "God
manifested in man" is not perceived as a manifestation of God in the sense that
it would be an "incarnation," but rather as a process of emanation via the holy
spirit.[241]
'Abdu'l-Bahá continues to develop this theme by using the same model as
above, but where he also explains the "extreme need" for a mediator between God
and human beings:
The Infinite Reality cannot be said to ascend or
descend. It is beyond the understanding of man, and cannot be described in
terms which apply to the phenomenal sphere of the created world. Man, then, is
in extreme need of the only Power by which he is able to receive help from the
Divine Reality, that Power alone bringing him into contact with the Source of
all life. An intermediary is needed to bring two extremes into relation with
each other. Riches and poverty, plenty and need: without an intermediary power
there could be no relation between these pairs of opposites. So we can say
there must be a Mediator between God and Man, and this is none other than the
Holy Spirit, which brings the created earth into relation with the 'Unthinkable
One', the Divine Reality. The Divine Reality may be likened to the sun and the
Holy Spirit to the rays of the sun. As the rays of the sun bring the light and
warmth of the sun to the earth, giving life to all created beings, so do the
'Manifestations' bring the power of the Holy Spirit from the Divine Sun of
Reality to give light and life to the souls of men. Behold, there is an
intermediary necessary between the sun and the earth; the sun does not descend
to the earth, neither does the earth ascend to the sun. . . . The Holy Spirit
it is which, through the mediation of the Prophets of God, teaches spiritual
virtues to man and enables him to attain Eternal Life. All these blessings are
brought to man by the Holy Spirit; therefore we can understand that the Holy
Spirit is the Intermediary between the Creator and the created. The light and
heat of the sun cause the earth to be fruitful, and create life in all things
that grow; and the Holy Spirit quickens the souls of men.[242]
From this talk it is clear that 'Abdu'l-Bahá equates the "Mediator," or
"Intermediary," with the Holy Spirit, and that it operates via the "mediation
of the Prophets of God" (the Manifestations of God). Similarly,
Bahá'u'lláh also states that the role of the Manifestation of God
is in connecting "this world with the realms above,"[243] and in other contexts he
portrays the
Manifestation of God as a channel, or vessel, of God.[244] Thus, the Manifestation of
God is
partaking in both God's and the human realm, and yet, he cannot be reduced to
either one. As has been repeatedly shown, the essence of God is beyond the
human knowledge, but is in a sense indirectly accessible via the Manifestations
of God. Consequently, the role of the Manifestation of God is primarily that of
being a mediator (M) between the heavenly and earthly realms. Furthermore, in
the last sentence the organic theme is recognized in that the sun causes the
"earth to be fruitful, and create life in all things that grow." This organic
theme is then immediately paralleled with that the Holy Spirit "quickens the
souls of men."
The above noted tripartite structured model of revelation (S-R-M) is clearly
illustrated in what is known as the "ringstone symbol," which is a symbol of
the "Greatest Name" (i.e., Bahá).[245]
Bahá'í Ringstone Symbol
This symbol can be likened to an "ideogram" since it possible to interpret it
on many different levels. One way of interpreting it is that it consists of the
Arabic letters "b" and "h" where the former letter stands for "Bahá"
(Bahá'u'lláh) and the latter represents the "Báb."[246]
These letters, in their mutual
configuration, can also be seen to be associated with what in this thesis is
referred to as the three actors in the simplified model of revelation. Thus,
the top horizontal line is described as "the world of God" or "the Creator,"
which agrees to (S). The middle horizontal line is depicted as "the world of
Revelation," "the Manifestations of God," which correlates to (M). The bottom
horizontal line symbolizes "the world of Creation" or the world of "man," which
corresponds to (R). Finally, the vertical line is a repeat of the middle
horizontal line and connects the three worlds and represents "the Holy Spirit,"
or "the Manifestation of God." Consequently, one can in this symbol clearly see
that the Manifestation of God exists as a mediator between God and man, and in
this intermediary role, he serves as a channel in order to connect the two
worlds.
Another way of interpreting this symbol is that the two stars represents the
two Manifestations of God (Báb and Bahá'u'lláh) and the
lines the body of the human being.[247]
It is also interesting to observe that the upper half of the symbol can be said
to be symmetrically reflected in the lower half, which conveys the idea that
the world of God, via the Manifestations of God, is be mirrored in the world of
Creation.[248] These two latter
interpretations are thus expressive of the macro/microcosmos scheme.
Yet, the question still remains if it is the essence of God which is reflected
via the Manifestation of God, or if it is simply the very same attributes and
names of God which humans can manifest. As Cole rightly observes, there are
quite a few statements by Bahá'u'lláh which clearly indicate that
the Manifestations of God are described as revealing God's essence.[249] The
following sections by
Bahá'u'lláh may shed some light on this topic:
These Prophets and chosen Ones of God are the
recipients and revealers of all the unchangeable attributes and names of God.
They are the mirrors that truly and faithfully reflect the light of God.[250]
The door of the knowledge of the Ancient of Days being thus closed in the face
of all beings, the Source of infinite grace, according to His saying: "His
grace hath transcended all things; My grace hath encompassed them all" hath
caused those luminous Gems of Holiness to appear out of the realm of the
spirit, in the noble form of the human temple, and be made manifest unto all
men, that they may impart unto the world the mysteries of the unchangeable
Being, and tell of the subtleties of His imperishable Essence.[251]
In the first section it can be observed that the Manifestations of God are both
"recipients and revealers." They are thus not only messengers of revelation (M)
but receivers (R) as well. This division is thus also in agreement with the
specific model of apocalypticism. Again one can see that the Manifestations of
God are described as "mirrors" who truly and faithfully can reflect God's
light. But the important point here is that the Manifestations of God are
described as the revealers of "all the unchangeable attributes and names of
God." The distinction of unchangeable attributes is perhaps a subtle nuance,
but is indicative of the essential (unchangeable) nature of God. The second
citation reiterates the unknowability of God, and that the Manifestations of
God come from the spiritual world and appears "in the noble form of the human
temple." The significance of this quote, however, is the very last sentence
where Bahá'u'lláh says that the Manifestations of God "tell of
the subtleties of His imperishable Essence." In other words, they make the
essence of God known to humanity. Moreover, the last section even identifies
the Manifestation of God with the "Eternal Essence."
As a final support for the above stated reasoning, 'Abdu'l-Bahá also
describes the Manifestations of God as reflecting the essence of God:
[. . . ] these manifestations are the Holy
Dawning-places, the Universal Realities and the Divine Beings, Who are the true
mirrors of the sanctified Essence of God. All the perfections, the bounties,
the splendors which come from God are visible and evident in the Reality of the
Holy Manifestations, like the sun which is resplendent in a clear polished
mirror with all its perfections and bounties. If it be said that the mirrors
are the manifestations of the sun and the dawning-places of the rising star,
this does not mean that the sun has descended from the height of its sanctity
and become incorporated in the mirror, nor that the Unlimited Reality is
limited to this place of appearance.[252]
Here the solar-mirror model is employed again, but notice that
'Abdu'l-Bahá in this context of the Manifestation of God clearly refutes
that the sun would descend and be incarnated (incorporated) in the mirror (the
Manifestation of God). The Manifestation of God is rather seen as being able to
perfectly reflect the sun's (God's) attributes.
The simplified tripartite structure of revelation was described earlier where
God (S) was symbolized as the sun, the Spirit/Manifestation of God as the
emanating ray as the mediator or intermediary (M), and humanity as the earth as
the recipients (R). However, the special model of revelation is also discussed
by 'Abdu'l-Bahá where he is elaborating upon the Christian concept of
the "Trinity":
But as to the question of the Trinity. . . there
are necessarily three things: The Giver of the Grace, and the Grace, and the
Recipient of the Grace; the Source of the Effulgence, and the Effulgence, and
the Recipient of the Effulgence; the Illuminator, and the Illumination, and the
Illuminated. Look at the Mosaic cycle: The Lord, and Moses, and the Fire (i.
e., the burning bush), the Intermediary; and in the Mohammedan cycle: The Lord,
the Apostle (or Messenger, Mohammed), and Gabriel . . . Look at the sun and its
rays and the heat which results from its rays; the rays and the heat are but
two effects of the sun, but inseparable from it; yet the sun is one in its
essence, unique in its real identity, single in its attributes, neither is it
possible that anything should resemble it. Such is the essence of the Truth
concerning the Unity, the real doctrine of the Singularity, the undiluted
reality as to the (Divine) Sanctity.[253]
There are a few salient points here, but suffice it to say that in the examples
of Moses and Muhammed the special model of apocalypticism can be recognized in
that God is seen as "the Source," or "the Illuminator" (S), and "the Fire," or
"Gabriel" are viewed as mediators (M). Finally, Moses and the Apostle
(Muhammed) are regarded as the recipients of revelation (R). Immediately after
this tripartite structure, the solar-model is applied and according to the
"real doctrine of the Singularity," the emanations are seen as inseparable from
the sun.
In conclusion, when distinguishing between the Manifestation of God and the
human beings 'Abdu'l-Bahá also applies a solar-lunar-model where he
equates the Manifestation of God with the sun, which is self-luminous, and the
human beings with the moon, which receives its light from the sun.[254] Thus, the
Manifestations of God are
referred to as "Primal Mirrors," or "Primary Mirrors," and human beings are
perceived as "secondary mirrors," which in turn, reflect the light from the
Manifestations of God.[255] In this
solar-lunar-model, human beings are seen as dependent upon the Manifestations
of God as the harbingers of light, guidance, education and healing. The next
and final section of this chapter will further elaborate on this theme where
the Manifestations of God are seen as the true educators and physicians of
humanity.
D. The Manifestations of God as Educators and Physicians
In a previous section it was shown that revelation is seen as a process of
education, one universal, pertaining to universal revelation, and one specific,
pertaining to specific revelation. In that context it was also noticed that God
was referred to as "the Educator."[256]
In this sense, God is regarded as the source of both processes of education
(revelation), the universal and the specific. It was also observed that the
human kingdom was in more need of guidance and education than the lower
kingdoms,[257] and it is in this context
that the Manifestations of God a referred to as the "educators" of mankind.
This educational role of the Manifestations of God is emphasized especially in
the writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá, and to a lesser degree in the writings of
Bahá'u'lláh. A few quotes by these Bahá'í-authors
will exemplify this theme in its connection with the concept of progress:
The Prophets and Messengers of God have been
sent down for the sole purpose of guiding mankind to the straight Path of
Truth. The purpose underlying their revelation hath been to educate all men,
that they may, at the hour of death, ascend, in the utmost purity and sanctity
and with absolute detachment, to the throne of the Most High. The light which
these souls radiate is responsible for the progress of the world and the
advancement of its peoples. They are like unto the leaven which leaveneth the
world of being, and constitute the animating force through which the arts and
wonders of the world are made manifest. Through them the clouds rain their
bounty upon men, and the earth bringeth forth its fruits.[258]
In this passage Bahá'u'lláh states the purpose of the
Manifestations of God in that they are guiding and educating mankind. However
this education is not solely for the terrestrial life, but for the next world
as well so that humans may, "at the hour of death, ascend . . . to the throne
of the Most High." Yet, one can also discern the progressive concept in that
the terrestrial purpose of "these souls" (the Manifestations of God), are
likened to a leaven which is responsible for, not only "progress of the world
and the advancement of its peoples," but also for the "arts and wonders of the
world." Moreover, organic metaphors of the "leaven and bread," "the rain,
earth, and fruits," are also clearly recognizable.
Similarly, 'Abdu'l-Bahá frequently uses the solar-model and organic
metaphors in conjunction with the education of Manifestations of God, and in
this first section one can see that he is alternating between universal and
specific education (revelation) since he is incorporating the lower kingdoms as
well:
All earthly creation whether mineral,
vegetable, animal or human is dependent upon the heat, light and
splendor of the great central solar body for training and development. Were it
not for the solar heat or sunlight, no minerals would have been formed, no
vegetable, animal and human organisms would or could have become existent. . .
. In the inner world of the Kingdom, the Sun of Reality is the trainer and
Educator of minds, souls and spirits. Were it not for the effulgent rays of the
Sun of Reality, they would be deprived of growth and development; nay, rather,
they would be non-existent. For just as the physical sun is the trainer of all
outer and phenomenal forms of being through the radiation of its light and
heat, so the radiation of the light and heat of the Sun of Reality gives
growth, education and evolution to minds, souls and spirits toward the station
of perfection.[259]
In this solar-model the Manifestation of God is referred to as the "Sun of
Reality" which is responsible for the training and development of "minds, souls
and spirits" in the same manner as the physical sun is for the growth of the
vegetable, animal and human kingdoms. Thus, one can here clearly discern the
emphasis on the concept of progress in statements like "growth and development"
and "growth, education and evolution," which ultimately strives towards the
"station of perfection."
This next passage by 'Abdu'l-Bahá will be used to further exemplify the
emphasis on progress in connection with education:
The wisdom and purpose of Their [the
Manifestations of God] training is that man must pass from degree to degree of
progressive unfoldment until perfection is attained. . . . without progressive
and universal education perfection will not be attained. Man must walk in many
paths and be subjected to various processes in his evolution upward. Physically
he is not born in full stature but passes through consecutive stages of fetus,
infant, childhood, youth, maturity and old age. . . . the journey of the soul
is necessary. . . Without training and guidance the soul could never progress
beyond the conditions of its lower nature, which is ignorant and defective.[260]
In the context of this quote 'Abdu'l-Bahá is also referring to the
Manifestations of God as "divine Gardeners" who cultivate the "earth of human
hearts and minds" where the educational process is likened to an organic
cultivating process.[261] Further, the
repeated notion of progress is clearly stated in that the human being
progressively unfolds until he has attained perfection. This process is an
"evolution upward" and is compared to the various developmental stages which a
human being passes through: fetus, infant, childhood, youth, maturity and old
age. This is a frequent metaphor in the Bahá'í-texts and which
shall be explored below.[262] Moreover,
'Abdu'l-Bahá also mentions that humans, without this education, would
not progress, but would remain on the animal stage of development.[263]
This final quote by 'Abdu'l-Bahá further brings up some different
aspects with regard to "universal education" and its evolutionary
perspective:
The Prophets of God are the first Educators.
They bestow universal education upon man and cause him to rise from the lowest
levels of savagery to the highest pinnacles of spiritual development. . . They
are universal Educators, and the fundamental principles they have laid down are
the causes and factors of the advancement of nations. Forms and imitations
which creep in afterwards are not conducive to that progress. On the contrary,
these are destroyers of human foundations established by the heavenly
Educators. These are clouds which obscure the Sun of Reality.[264]
Here it can be noticed that the Manifestations of God are referred to as the
"first Educators" and "universal Educators." The evolutionary, or progressive,
theme is seen in that these educators make human beings rise from "the lowest
of savagery" to the attainment of spiritual development. 'Abdu'l-Bahá
also mentions that the Manifestations of God are "the causes and factors of the
advancement of nations," but one can also recognize that "forms and imitations"
are not only counterproductive of such "progress," but that they even are
considered the "destroyers of human foundations." Here it is also possible to
observe the opposite theme of progress that of regression or
decline.
Another theme which can be found in the Bahá'í writings is that
this terrestrial life is seen as a school and that humanity is viewed as its
children or pupils.[265] Hence, there are
certain things humans (as individuals) and humanity (as a collective), shall
learn and develop in this world or kingdom. The Bahá'í-authors
lists the following areas: to free ourselves from the bonds and chains of the
world of nature; to be freed from the thralldom of natural instincts and
physical tendencies; to acquire divine perfections; to train the souls of
humanity; to prepare for the life in the next world; to make the whole of
humanity and human civilization develop; and to create the Kingdom of God on
earth.[266]
Just as God in the Bahá'í writings is referred to as the
"Educator" he is also referred to as "The All-Knowing Physician" who has his
"finger on the pulse of mankind."[267]
Apart from being referred to as Educators, the Manifestations of God are also
known in the Bahá'í-texts as "Divine and infallible Physicians,"
or "true Physicians,"[268] and the
concept of progress can similarly also be found in these contexts. The
following section by Bahá'u'lláh expresses some aspects of this
concept:
The Prophets of God should be regarded as
physicians whose task is to foster the well-being of the world and its peoples,
that, through the spirit of oneness, they may heal the sickness of a divided
humanity. To none is given the right to question their words or disparage their
conduct, for they are the only ones who can claim to have understood the
patient and to have correctly diagnosed its ailments. No man, however acute his
perception, can ever hope to reach the heights which the wisdom and
understanding of the Divine Physician have attained. Little wonder, then, if
the treatment prescribed by the physician in this day should not be found to be
identical with that which he prescribed before. How could it be otherwise when
the ills affecting the sufferer necessitate at every state of his sickness a
special remedy? In like manner, every time the Prophets of God have illumined
the world with the resplendent radiance of the Day Star of Divine knowledge,
they have invariably summoned its peoples to embrace the light of God through
such means as best befitted the exigencies of the age in which they appeared.[269]
Here humanity is described as being suffering from a sickness which only the
Manifestations of God correctly can diagnose. However, they not only perform
the diagnosis but also prescribe the proper treatment.[270] The latter half of this
section
reveals an important theme which will be relevant for the subsequent discussion
on the concept of progressive revelation. For example, one can notice the
sentence which states that "the treatment prescribed by the physician in this
day should not be found to be identical with that which he prescribed before,"
and this is due to that "every state of his sickness a special remedy." The
sentence that follows this metaphor is that the Manifestations of God have
"invariably summoned its people . . . through such means as best befitted the
exigencies of the age in which they appeared." This theme is further developed
in a another statement by Bahá'u'lláh where he says that "Every
age hath its own problem . . . The remedy the world needeth in its present-day
afflictions can never be the same as that which a subsequent age may
require."[271] This line of reasoning
suggests that the Manifestations of God must prescribe different treatments at
different times since the ailments vary. Bahá'u'lláh also argues
that the reasons for that mankind is still "encompassed with great, with
incalculable afflictions" and is seen "languishing on its bed of sickness,
sore-tried and disillusioned," is due to that "they that are intoxicated by
self-conceit have interposed themselves between it and the Divine and
infallible Physician."[272] It is not
exactly clear who "they" are, whom Bahá'u'lláh is alluding to,
but in another context he is referring to himself as the "true Physician" who
is "debarred from administering the remedy, whilst unskilled practitioners are
regarded with favor, and are accorded full freedom to act."[273] In this context he
also exemplifies
what he means with the malaise of humanity:
Witness how the world is being afflicted with a
fresh calamity every day. Its tribulation is continually deepening. . . . At
one time it hath been agitated by contentions and disputes, at another it hath
been convulsed by wars, and fallen a victim to inveterate diseases. Its
sickness is approaching the stage of utter hopelessness.[274]
The contentions, disputes and wars, seem to be a few examples of "its sickness"
which also seem accelerating. 'Abdu'l-Bahá gives some additional
examples of these ailments as the "lack of love and absence of altruism," and
concludes that if these are absent "no progress or prosperity" can be
attained.[275] In another place he
identifies the ailments as "selfish disorders, intellectual maladies, spiritual
sicknesses, imperfections and vices."[276] 'Abdu'l-Bahá continues to say
that neither science, patriotism, nor racial allegiance, can be the remedy for
such disease, only the "spiritual teachings of the religion of God."[277]
On this theme 'Abdu'l-Bahá is also briefly touching upon the concept of
progressive revelation since he is stating that:
[ . . .] in the day of Jesus Christ the world of
humanity was afflicted with various ailments. Jesus Christ was the real
Physician. He appeared, recognized the symptoms and prescribed the real remedy.
What was that remedy? It was His revealed teaching especially applicable to
that age. Later on many new ailments and disorders appeared in the body
politic. The world became sick; other severe maladies appeared, especially in
the peninsula of Arabia. God manifested Muhammad there. He came and prescribed
for the conditions so that the Arabs became healthy, strong and virile in that
time. In this present age the world of humanity is afflicted with severe
sicknesses and grave disorders which threaten death. Therefore, Bahá'u'lláh has
appeared. He is the real Physician, bringing divine remedy and healing to the
world of man.[278]
In this context 'Abdu'l-Bahá is successively mentioning three
Manifestations of God; Jesus Christ, Muhammed and Bahá'u'lláh,
and that they have appeared in different ages to diagnose the disease and to
prescribe the necessary treatment. Thus, there appears to be a certain
periodicity, or cyclical pattern, in the appearance of the Manifestations of
God. In the same context 'Abdu'l-Bahá also defines what the treatments
for this age are:
The essential principles of His healing remedies
are the knowledge and love of God, severance from all else save God, turning
our faces in sincerity toward the Kingdom of God, implicit faith, firmness and
fidelity, loving-kindness toward all creatures and the acquisition of the
divine virtues indicated for the human world. These are the fundamental
principles of progress, civilization, international peace and the unity of
mankind. These are the essentials of Bahá'u'lláh's teachings, the secret of
everlasting health, the remedy and healing for man. It is my hope that you may
assist in healing the sick body of the world through these teachings so that
eternal radiance may illumine all the nations of mankind.[279]
Here one may discern a series of more or less abstract religious principles
that are recognized as remedies. However, the interesting point for this thesis
is that 'Abdu'l-Bahá is identifying these treatments with the
"fundamental principles of progress, civilization, international peace and the
unity of mankind," and he later states that these are "the essentials of
Bahá'u'lláh's teachings." Hence, one can observe that the concept of progress
is one of these fundamental principles.
Now, to in order to summarize this section of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism it was concluded in
Bahá'í-theology that the essence of God is completely
inaccessible and unknowable to human beings, but that God, according to
capacity, can either indirectly be known through; a) his creation or within the
human being (universal revelation), and directly b) through his Manifestations
of God (specific revelation). In the Bahá'í-cosmology it was also
concluded that the cosmos was highly dynamic and evolutionary in its character.
Further, it could be shown that cosmos also was structured in a spiritual
hierarchy and that each form of existence could evolve and progress within its
plane or kingdom. Thus, even the lower kingdoms were seen as being under the
influence of "education." However, human beings, although essentially
spiritual, have evolved through the lower kingdoms and they differ from these
in that they can traverse onto the higher and more spiritual kingdoms. Specific
revelation, although present in all kingdoms, is primarily confined to human
beings, where the Holy Spirit, manifests itself in the form of, or via, a human
being called a Manifestation of God. The Manifestations of God have
visited humanity at different times in history and this is a process which will
continue in the future. Further, the Manifestations of God occupy a dual
station, one spiritual or divine (esoteric) and one human and physical
(exoteric), and in this respect they partake both in the heavenly and earthly
realms. The Manifestations of God was further seen as mediators between God and
man (M), especially in their role as divine educators and physicians, and were
finally regarded as the primary instruments for the progress of the individual,
society, civilization, and ultimately, for the unification of the world. In the
next chapter additional aspects of the Manifestation of God will be examined,
but within the framework of the concept of progressive revelation.
The structure of this chapter on Bahá'í-apocalypticism can be
seen as generally oriented along a vertical axis. It is designated as vertical
in that the field of theology represents the most esoteric dimension since one
aspect of God remained completely transcendental or hidden. Thus, it could be
seen that the subsequent areas of cosmology, universal and specific revelation,
and prophetology, gradually disclosed a more horizontal axis since the more
immanent or manifest levels of cosmos were elaborated upon. This latter area
can therefore be seen as increasingly exoteric.
This chapter has supported the first hypothesis of this thesis that is
Bahá'í-apocalypticism in general has a multidimensional
structure, e.g., hierarchical, horizontal, vertical, exoterical, and
esoterical.
As will be shown in the next chapter, the esoteric/exoteric dimensions are
intricately correlated, but the overall orientation is still in the horizontal
direction in that the concept of progressive revelation mainly concerns the
temporal, spatial, and causal, nature of revelation and religion (See Appendix
I and II).
Notes:
[75] PUP, pp. 32, 154, 174, 19
[76] The daily recital of one of three specific prayers revealed by
Bahá'u'lláh is binding on the Bahá'ís from the age
of maturity (15 years). There are three obligatory prayers of different length;
one short, one medium, and one long. The believer is free to choose one of the
three prayers, which are to be said privately. See Momen, W. (1991). p. 18
[77] E.g., BP, p. 17
[78] GWB, p. 192, italics added
[79] WB, p. 113, italics added; SV, pp. 34-35, italics added
[80] Shoghi Effendi qtd. in LG, p. 419, italics added
[81] See B
[82] See WB, pp. 97, 412-413, 52
[83] GWB, pp. 46-47, italics added
[84] GWB, p. 31
[85] PM, p. 9
[86] See Prophetology
[87] BP, p. 4; GWB, p. 70, p. 77; WB, pp. 414-415, p. 420
[88] BP, p. 1
[89] BP, p. 143; WB, p. 113
[90] God is also referred by Bahá'u'lláh as "the Invisible of the
Invisibles." KI, p. 10
[91] See Taherzadeh, A. (1987). vol. 1, p. 117; Sours, M. (1992
[92] WB, pp. 240-241, clarification added
[93] Bahá'u'lláh qtd in Savi, J. (1989). p. 37. See also
'Abdu'l-Bahá's Tafsír-i kuntu kanz makhfiy (Commentary on "I was
a Hidden Treasure"), pp. 2-55; GWB, p. 12
[94] BP, p. 12
[95] WB, pp. 414-415
[96] GWB, p. 49, italics added
[97] GWB, p. 16
[98] GWB, p. 17
[99] TAF, p. 18, p. 24, clarification and italics added; BWF, p. 341
[100] PUP, p. 422, italics added
[101] SAQ, p. 221, italics added
[102] PM, p. 4
[103] GWB, p. 177; WB, pp. 414-415, p. 420; KI, pp. 102-10
[104] PUP, pp. 69-70, italics added; see also FWU pp. 51-53; HW, nr. 3 from the
Arabic, p.
[105] Genesis, v. 26; see also SV, p. 34; PUP, p. 125, p. 336
[106] PUP, p. 378, italics added
[107] SAQ, p. 182, italics added
[108] Conversation between 'Abdu'l-Bahá and Dr. Fallscheer, recorded in
Sonne
der Warheit, No. 1, March 1921, p. 9, italics added
[109] PUP, p. 30
[110] Although progress may be the general characteristic of the cosmos this is not
true for the Háhút realm. On this theme 'Abdu'l-Bahá
writes: "[. . .] there is neither entrance nor exit for the reality of
Divinity; there is no ingress or egress; it is sanctified above all things and
ever occupies its own holy station. Changes and transformations are not
applicable to that eternal reality. Transformation from conditions to
conditions is attributable of contingent realities." PUP, p.173-174, italics
added. See also SAQ, p. 20
[111] PT, pp. 87-88, italics added
[112] PUP, p. 140, italics added
[113] Bahá'u'lláh further comments upon this scheme in his Lawh-i
kullu't-ta'ám (Tablet of "All Food") and in his Lawh-i varqá. See
Cole, J. (1984
[114] SV, pp. 36-37; See 'Ali al-Jurjání (1306/1888). p. 11
[115] See Cole, J. (1984). pp. 12-13; Momen, M. (1988). pp. 189-195
[116] See Appendix
[117] E.g., GWB, p. 47, p. 64; PM, p. 10
[118] See Prophetolog
[119] GWB, pp. 151-152; PUP, p. 274, p. 463; DP, pp. 136, 110, 16
[120] In the English translation
[121] PUP, pp. 240-241, italics added
[122] PUP, p. 29, p. 7
[123] PUP, p. 51, p. 61, pp. 240-241, p. 258. Human beings are also described as
having the ability to sink lower than the animals; see e.g., PUP, pp. 464-46
[124] TAF, p. 10; SAQ, pp. 3-4; PUP, pp. 240-24
[125] SAQ, p. 230, italics added
[126] PUP, p. 114, italics added; PUP, pp. 172-173; SWA, pp. 46-47; TAF, p.
1
[127] PUP, p. 160, italics added; PUP, pp. 172-17
[128] SWA, pp. 46-47; GWB, p. 26
[129] PUP, p. 160; pp. 307-308, p. 270; FWU, pp. 51-53, pp. 57-5
[130] PUP, pp. 87-8
[131] FWU, p. 57; PUP, p. 285. For a more general discussion on the evolutionary
and
progressive character of the Bahá'í -cosmology see e.g. Savi, J.
(1989); Hopson, E. A. (1982)
[132] SAQ, p. 199, italics added
[133] PUP, pp. 225-226, italics added
[134] See also UD, p. 45
[135] See e.g., SAQ, pp. 193-194; PUP, pp. 358-35
[136] PUP, pp. 307-30
[137] PUP, p. 302, italics added
[138] PUP, p. 77, italics added
[139] GWB, p. 157; PUP, p. 47; SWA, pp. 170-171; LG, p. 204
[140] SAQ, p. 237, p. 231; LG, pp. 204, 205, 20
[141] GWB, p. 15
[142] BP, p. 173, italics added
[143] KI, pp. 139-140; WB, p.112; GWB, 184; the term "universal" revelation
seems to
be more commonly used in the English translations so this is the term which
will be used from now on
[144] KI, pp. 141-142; WB, p. 11
[145] GWB, pp. 189-190; italics added
[146] See "The Manifestations of God as Educators and Physicians
[147] GWB, p. 17
[148] GWB, pp. 62, 177, 184, pp. 189-192; pp. 267-268; KI, pp. 100-101; pp.
196-198;
SWA, pp. 14-1
[149] KI, pp. 139-140; WB, p. 112; italics added
[150] KI, p. 102; GWB, p. 178, italics added
[151] GWB, p.16
[152] KI, pp. 100-101; GWB, p. 17
[153] KI, pp. 100-101; GWB, p. 17
[154] KI, pp. 196-198; GWB, pp. 267-26
[155] GWB, p. 184; pp. 189-19
[156] KI, p. 102; GWB, p. 160, p. 17
[157] GWB, p. 65, italics added
[158] See Prophetology
[159] WB, p.113, italics added
[160] See Prophetology
[161] PUP, p. 7
[162] In an addition to knowing God via creation or through one's own self
[163] SV, pp. 50-51, italics added
[164] See HW, no. 15 from the Persian, p. 3
[165] In a subsequent section it will be shown if the category of special revelation
is restricted to a certain time-period or not. See "Differences between the
Manifestations of God and the Concept of Progress," and "The cyclical scheme
[166] See KI, p. 7
[167] See KI, p. 124, p. 17
[168] GWB, p. 87, pp. 76-77; Bahá'u'lláh qtd. in WOB, p. 116; GWB,
pp.
76-77; p. 79, see also pp. 80-81; TM, p. 3; WOB, p. 60. Cf. Qur'án 14:
[169] GWB, p. 88; see also pp. 76-7
[170] Bahá'u'lláh qtd. in WOB, p. 116; WB, p. 41
[171] GWB, p. 7
[172] KI, p. 49, pp. 8-9; cf. Qur'án 71:2
[173] GWB, p. 82, italics added; see also HW, nr. 67 (Arabic) in WB, p. 5
[174] See The Concept of Progressive Revelation and Appendix
[175] GWB, pp. 66-67, clarification and italics added
[176] GWB, pp. 67-68, italics added
[177] See KI, p. 33; GWB, pp. 26, 50, 59; SAQ, pp. 127-12
[178] mazhar-i iláhí in Arabic; GWB, p. 26, pp. 49-50; Cole, J.
(1982).
[179] For a more detailed study on this concept see Cole, J. (1982)
[180] See WOB, pp. 114-115, p. 10
[181] See KI, p. 51, 152; SAQ, p. 2
[182] GWB, p. 48, italics added
[183] From now on the term "Manifestation of God" will be used as synonymous with
the terms "Prophet of God" and "Messenger of God
[184] GWB, pp. 48-49; italics added
[185] GWB, pp. 55-5
[186] See KI, p. 216, p. 22
[187] SAQ, pp. 164-166, pp. 149-15
[188] PUP, pp. 361-36
[189] SAQ, pp. 164-16
[190] However, both David and Joseph are accounted as Prophets, Messengers, or
"Messengers of the Word of God" in KI, p. 51, p. 25
[191] KI, pp. 7-11; SAQ, p. 47; 165-166, PUP, pp. 197-198, pp. 221-222, p.
346; TAF,
p. 2
[192] KI, p. 174, italics added; GWB, p. 2
[193] KI, p. 14, italics added
[194] PUP, p. 46
[195] See "The cyclical scheme.
[196] GWB, p. 145; cf. Qur'án 6:42; 10:46, 16:33; 16:63; 35:1
[197] Bahá'u'lláh qtd in WOB, p. 116, italics added; FWU, p. 5
[198] Above it was shown that the Manifestations of God in all cases is a male and
hence the use of the masculine gender seems appropriate.
[199] See Bahá'u'lláh (1972-73); Cole, J. (1982). p. 1
[200] TM, p.
[201] TM, p. 1, italics added
[202] KI, pp. 152-153 italics added; cf. GWB, p. 5
[203] GWB, p. 78, italics added
[204] Qur'án 2:28
[205] KI, p. 176, italics added
[206] TM, p. 2; see also SAQ, pp. 151-15
[207] GWB, pp. 66-67, italics added
[208] KI, p. 6
[209] SAQ, pp. 151-153, italics added
[210] SAQ, pp. 151-15
[211] KA, p.47; KI, p. 216, p. 220; WB, 105; GWB, p. 131; SAQ, pp. 171-172; pp.
157-158; LG, p. 543
[212] TM, p. 2; GWB, p. 10
[213] TM, p.
[214] See Table 3 and SAQ, p. 10
[215] GWB, p. 49, italics added, p. 5
[216] TM, p. 3, italics added
[217] See SAQ, p. 108
[218] GWB, p. 72, italics added
[219] See Specific Revelation
[220] TM, p.
[221] TAF, p. 10, p. 2
[222] GWB, p. 49
[223] The term "man," whenever use by this author, connotes the generic terms
"human" or "humanity.
[224] KI, pp. 178-179, italics added, pp. 177-178; WOB, p. 10
[225] GWB, pp. 62-63, italics added; p. 4, p. 59; BP, p. 5
[226] GWB, p.16
[227] Bahá'u'lláh qtd in WOB, p. 11
[228] GWB, p. 167; italics added
[229] ESW, p. 4
[230] See also GJ
[231] KI, p. 103; italics add
[232] GWB, p. 65, italics added, p. 177; KA, p. 175; see Cosmolog
[233] Cole, J. (1982). p. 22, italics added
[234] Cole, J. (1982). pp. 22-2
[235] KI, p. 14, pp. 177-178; GWB, p. 6
[236] GWB, p. 49, italics added; PT, pp. 25-2
[237] GWB, p. 179, italics added
[238] SAQ, p. 206, italics added
[239] See P
[240] John, 14:
[241] PT, pp. 25-2
[242] PT, pp. 57-59, italics added; BWF, p. 26
[243] GWB, pp. 49-50, italics added; KA, p. 8
[244] GWB, p. 66-67; PUP, p. 106, p. 42
[245] This symbol was designed by 'Abdu'l-Bahá and is called the "ringstone
symbol" because it is used on Bahá'í rings. See LG, p. 26
[246] According to the ancient Arabic abjad system, the letter a has the numerical
value of 1, b = 2, and h = 5. Thus, Báb = 5 = h. The letter b is also an
abbreviation for "Bahá," which also is associated with the number 9. See
e.g., Momen, W. (1991), pp. 5-6
[247] LG, pp. 269-27
[248] GWB, p. 16
[249] KI, p. 14, pp. 177-178; GWB, p. 62
[250] KI, p. 142, italics added
[251] KI, p. 99, italics added
[252] SAQ, pp. 147-148, italics added
[253] TAB, pp. 117-118; italics added
[254] SAQ, pp. 154-156
[255] GWB, p. 16
[256] GWB, pp. 189-19
[257] PUP, p. 77; for a more detailed explanation on the theme of "The Need of an
Educator" see SAQ, pp. 7-1
[258] GWB, pp. 156-157; WB, p. 455; KI, p. 9
[259] PUP, pp. 270-271; PT, pp. 30-3
[260] PUP, pp. 295-296, clarification and italics added
[261] See e.g., PUP, p. 31
[262] See "Differences between the manifestations of God and the Concept of
Progress
[263] See e.g., PUP, pp. 465-46
[264] PUP, pp. 84-86, pp. 40-41, p. 364, p. 40
[265] PUP, p. 411, p. 341; LG, p. 21
[266] PUP, p. 185; SAQ, p. 8; PUP, p. 310; PUP, pp. 225-226; GWB, p. 215; PUP,
pp.
375-376; SAQ, pp. 9-10; SWA, p. 3
[267] GWB, p. 213; PUP, p. 5
[268] GWB, p. 40, p. 21
[269] GWB, p. 80, italics added
[270] See e.g., PUP, p. 15
[271] GWB, p. 21
[272] GWB, p. 21
[273] GWB, pp. 40-4
[274] GWB, pp. 40-41, pp. 118-119; WOB, p. 32; SWA p. 24
[275] PUP, p. 171; italics added
[276] PUP, pp. 204-20
[277] PUP, p. 17
[278] PUP, pp. 204-205, p. 44
[279] PUP, pp. 204-20
Chapter 6
VI. The Concept of Progressive Revelation
In the previous sections from cosmology to prophetology
it has repeatedly been noticed that the concept of progress within
Bahá'í-apocalypticism is central. As was formerly stated in the
Introduction, one of the aims of this thesis is to systematically and
structurally analyze the concept of progressive revelation. The preceding
chapter of Bahá'í Apocalypticism may therefore be regarded as a
rather lengthy preamble for this concept. It was also stated in the hypotheses
that the concept of progressive revelation is a central concept of the
Bahá'í-religion and consequently within the system of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism.
The concept of progressive revelation is defined in a
Bahá'í-dictionary as "The concept that Divine Revelation is not
final, but continuing," while another source states that it "Possibly [is] the
central principle behind the Bahá'í concept of the oneness of
religion."[280] The first definition
emphasizes on the concept of continuity (exoteric dimension) whereas the latter
focuses on the underlying unity between religions (esoteric dimension), and
further states that it is a central principle.
This hypothesis that the concept of progressive revelation is a central concept
of the Bahá'í-religion will now be tested on two major levels:
- By finding direct and explicit support for this assertion
in the Bahá'í-texts.
- By analyzing various Bahá'í-texts which indirectly and
implicitly suggest that it is a central concept.
The first level will be the simplest to confirm while conclusions about the
second only will be reached and supported at the end of this chapter.
The following paragraphs by Shoghi Effendi are used to directly ascertain that
the concept of progressive revelation is a central concept, or principle, of
the Bahá'í-religion:
The fundamental principle enunciated by
Bahá'u'lláh . . . is that religious truth is not absolute but
relative, that Divine Revelation is a continuous and progressive process.[281]
[. . .] the fundamental principle which constitutes the Bedrock of
Bahá'í belief, the principle that religious truth is not absolute
but relative, that Divine Revelation is orderly, continuous and progressive and
not spasmodic or final.[282]
The Faith of Bahá'u'lláh should indeed be regarded . . . as the
culmination of a cycle, the final stage in a series of successive, of
preliminary and progressive revelations.[283]
It is possible to interpret the first two paragraphs above that "religious
truth is not absolute but relative" as a separate principle from "Divine
Revelation is a continuous and progressive process." Moreover, by that fact
that it is mentioned first, this could be considered as the fundamental
principle of the Bahá'í-religion. It is also possible, however,
to see the two sentences as inseparably related and as a more elaborate version
of a single principle. Note also that Shoghi Effendi in this context refers to
this sequence as the "fundamental principle" and that it is constituting "the
Bedrock of Bahá'í belief." Another passage by Shoghi Effendi will
clarify this relationship in determining if they are to be treated as two
separate principles or as one single principle:
Let none, however, mistake my purpose, or
misrepresent this cardinal truth which is of the essence of the Faith of
Bahá'u'lláh. The divine origin of all the Prophets of God
including Jesus Christ and the Apostle of God [Muhammed], the two
greatest Manifestations preceding the Revelation of the Báb
is unreservedly and unshakably upheld by each and every follower of the
Bahá'í-religion. The fundamental unity of these Messengers of God
is clearly recognized, the continuity of their Revelation is affirmed.[284]
Here Shoghi Effendi indirectly refers to the "continuity of their Revelation"
as a "cardinal truth which is of the essence of the Faith of
Bahá'u'lláh." In the first sections above one may also notice
that the term "continuous" is directly coupled with the term "progressive,"
whereas the last quote contains the term "successive." Later on in this thesis,
it will be shown that the terms successive and continuous are two crucial key
terms to the concept of progressive revelation.[285] Shoghi Effendi does also
directly use
the technical term "progressive revelation" in his own writings, both in the
singular[286] and in the plural as seen
above. However, there exists no English translations where 'Abdu'l-Bahá
directly utilizes the technical term "progressive revelation." In the English
translations of Bahá'u'lláh's writings the technical term has
only been found once,[287] but it appears
that this term never occurs in the original Arabic or Persian texts.[288] Although
Shoghi Effendi seems to have
invented the technical term, it does not follow that the concept is absent in
the writings of Bahá'u'lláh and 'Abdu'l-Bahá. This thesis
would rather like to advocate the opposite in that Shoghi Effendi, due to the
concept's centrality and frequency in the writings of Bahá'u'lláh
and 'Abdu'l-Bahá, must have seen the need to formulate a technical term
that would disclose its appropriate connotations. Consequently, Shoghi Effendi
asks the following question:
Does not Bahá'u'lláh Himself
allude to the progressiveness of divine Revelation?[289]
Shoghi Effendi's question indicates both that Bahá'u'lláh
indirectly and implicitly refers to this concept and that he further implies
that this concept is rather self-evident. Although both 'Abdu'l-Bahá and
Bahá'u'lláh may hint at this concept, it will be shown in the
subsequent sections that progressive revelation is a central theme of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism, not only by the analysis of several
Bahá'í-texts on this theme, but it will also be seen in the
Bahá'í-author's own discussions of this concept.
While enumerating the various principles which he found to be central to the
Bahá'í-religion, 'Abdu'l-Bahá mentions in a passage the
underlying oneness of the religions.[290]
As this thesis proceeds, it will be shown that this is one fundamental aspect
to the concept of progressive revelation. Although the exact technical term of
progressive revelation may be lacking in the writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá,
statements like "revelation is progressive and continuous" are abundant.[291]
Here one can recognize that the term
"continuous" is once more is coupled with the term "progressive." Similarly,
although Bahá'u'lláh only alludes to the concept of progressive
revelation in his Kitáb-Íqán, it is replete with frequent
symbolism on this theme. In the following paragraph by
Bahá'u'lláh (translated by Shoghi Effendi), the technical term
"Progressive Revelation" is clearly noted:
Contemplate with thine inward eye the chain of
successive Revelations that hath linked the Manifestations of Adam with that of
the Báb . . . And when this process of Progressive Revelation culminated
. . .[292]
Having found direct and explicit support in the Bahá'í-text that
progressive revelation is a central concept, or principle, of the
Bahá'í-religion, it is logical to make this concept the primary
object of study in the continuing investigation of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism. Below the second level of the hypothesis
will be tested, i.e., to analyze various Bahá'í-texts which
indirectly and implicitly suggest that the concept of progressive revelation is
a central concept of Bahá'í-apocalypticism.
1. Texts of identification the esoteric dimension
It is possible to locate at least two major levels on which the concept of
progressive revelation may be understood in the Bahá'í-texts. The
first major level could be referred to as "texts of identification" where
Bahá'u'lláh identifies himself with: a) God, b) previous
Manifestations of God, or c) where the Bahá'í-authors write about
the identity of either the Manifestations of God in general, or describe the
identity between Bahá'u'lláh and some specific Manifestations of
God. This level is thus very reminiscent of what above was referred to as the
station of essential unity (the esoteric dimension) in that it is the essential
and unifying aspects of religion which are emphasized.
The second major level of investigating this concept is by studying "texts of
elaboration" in which the Bahá'í-authors elaborate on various
themes of progressive revelation. This level is generally similar to the
station of distinction (the exoteric dimension) in that it is the phenomenal
aspects of religion which are predominant. This second major level could, in
turn, also be further divided into four sub-categories which: a) centers around
the theme of the rise and fall of an individual religion, b) examines the
succession and continuity of religion (revelation), c) looks at the differences
of the Manifestations of God and the progressive character of religion
(revelation). The fourth and final sub-category d) can be seen as a synthesis
and extension of the previous three sub-categories in that it portrays the
concept of progressive revelation in a cyclical scheme of substantially greater
time-periods.
A. Identification with God
The identity between the Manifestation of God and God was discussed in a former
section. However, it is possible to allocate texts of identification where
Bahá'u'lláh appears to identify himself with God in different
religious traditions. In the following passage one can notice that
Bahá'u'lláh utilizes the first form of the plural "We"[293] in
conjunction with four known
religions:
At one time We addressed the people of the
Torah. . . At another, We addressed the people of the Evangel. . . At still
another, We addressed the people of the Qur'án saying: 'Fear the
All-Merciful, and cavil not at Him through Whom all religions were founded.' .
. . Know thou moreover, that We have addressed to the Magians Our Tablets, and
adorned them with Our Law. . . . We have revealed in them the essence of all
the hints and allusions contained in their Books. The Lord, verily, is the
Almighty, the All-Knowing.[294]
Here Bahá'u'lláh, most likely from the station of essential
unity, identifies himself with "Him through Whom all religions were founded."
Hence, he says that he at different times addressed various "people" and lists
them as: "the people of the Torah" (Judaism), "the people of the Evangel"
(Christianity), "the people of the Qur'án" (Islám), and the
"Magians" (Zoroastrianism). Notice that in the final sentence the first person
of the plural shifts to the third person in the singular. With this shift in
mind it is also possible to interpret this section in that
Bahá'u'lláh merely is speaking with the "voice of God" and that
he does not, as was previously seen, identify himself neither with the totality
nor the essence of God. However, the important point in this context is that
Bahá'u'lláh claims that God has consecutively addressed various
people at different times and thereby is the ultimate originator and founder
their respective religions.[295]
B. Identification with previous Manifestations of God
The second level of investigation texts of identification has already been
conducted in some detail by Cole (1993) in his "I am all the Prophets": The
Poetics of Pluralism in Bahá'í Texts. The title alludes ultimately to a passage
in the Kitáb-i-Íqán where Bahá'u'lláh is
elaborating upon the theme of the "return" of the Manifestations of God, and
where Muhammed, according to Bahá'u'lláh, is identifying himself
with the former Prophets:
Thus hath Muhammad, the point of the
Qur'án, revealed: "I am all the Prophets." Likewise, He saith: "I am the
first Adam, Noah, Moses, and Jesus." . . . Wherefore, should one of these
Manifestations of Holiness proclaim saying: "I am the return of all the
Prophets," He verily speaketh the truth. In like manner, in every subsequent
Revelation, the return of the former Revelation is a fact, the truth of which
is firmly established.[296]
Bahá'u'lláh is making a similar but indirect claim in the
following text which Cole also uses for his analysis. The original text have,
due to lack of space and its extensive length, been considerably shortened, and
the assumed person referred to in the text have been added:[297]
Praise be to Thee, O Lord My God, for the
wondrous revelations of Thy inscrutable decree and the manifold woes and trials
Thou hast destined for Myself. At one time Thou didst deliver Me [Abraham] into
the hands of Nimrod; at another Thou hast allowed Pharaoh's rod to persecute Me
[Moses]. . . Again Thou didst cast Me [Joseph] into the prison-cell of the
ungodly. . . And again Thou didst decree that I [John the Baptist] be beheaded
by the sword of the infidel. Again I [Jesus Christ] was crucified for having
unveiled to men's eyes the hidden gems of Thy glorious unity . . . How bitter
the humiliation heaped upon Me [Imám Husayn], in a subsequent age, on
the plain of Karbilá! . . . In a later age, I [the Báb] was
suspended, and My breast was made a target to the darts of the malicious
cruelty of My foes. . . Finally, behold how, in this Day, My treacherous
enemies have leagued themselves against Me [Bahá'u'lláh], and are
continually plotting to instill the venom of hate and malice into the souls of
Thy servants.[298]
The crucial element in the above text of identification is that the author is
using the narrative voice in the first person of either the singular or the
plural. It is perhaps surprising that Bahá'u'lláh here identifies
himself with Joseph, John the Baptist, and Imám Husayn, who, according
to 'Abdu'l-Bahá's distinction above, would be classified as dependent
prophets.[299] The important point here,
however, is that Bahá'u'lláh identifies himself with six
different religious figures: Abraham, Moses, John the Baptist, Jesus Christ,
Imám Huseyn, and the Báb. The identification with these religious
figures is, however, not exclusive since Bahá'u'lláh in another
context also identifies himself with Muhammed: "If ye cherish the desire to
slay Muhammad, the Apostle of God, seize Me and put an end to My life, for I am
He, and My Self is His Self."[300]
There is another way to look at texts of identification and that is to examine
the concept of "return of prophets," and above Bahá'u'lláh also
seems equate "I am all the Prophets" with "I am the return of all the
Prophets." Christopher Buck has made an analysis of the claims of
Bahá'u'lláh and refers to this concept as "Cross-Cultural
Messianism."[301] Buck identifies four
figures in four different religions whom Bahá'u'lláh directly
claims to be identified with:
- the return of Imám Husayn of Shí'i
Islám
- a dual messianic claim of the return of the Father and the return of
the Spirit of Truth in Christianity
- the return of Sháh Bahrám Varjávand of
Zoroastrianism
- the Lord of Hosts in Judaism
In addition, there are a few cryptic lines where Bahá'u'lláh: 1)
identifies himself with the Báb in that he refers to him as "My Previous
Manifestation," or as "My previous Revelation," and, 2) claims to be the return
of the Báb "arrayed in a new raiment," or "clothed in the glory of
Bahá."[302] Nowhere does
Bahá'u'lláh directly claim to be the return of Krishna or the
Buddha, but Shoghi Effendi, writing about Bahá'u'lláh on
this theme, extrapolates the above claims to include even these two religious
figures.[303] Further, the above stated
religious figures here can not be a fixed number since
Bahá'u'lláh also proclaims to be the "Promised One" of all
religions. The following passage by Bahá'u'lláh will exemplify
this conclusion:
Followers of the Gospel, behold the gates of
heaven are flung open. He that had ascended unto it is now come. Give ear to
His voice calling aloud over land and sea, announcing to all mankind the advent
of this Revelation -- a Revelation through the agency of which the Tongue of
Grandeur is now proclaiming: 'Lo, the sacred Pledge hath been fulfilled, for
He, the Promised One, is come!' The voice of the Son of Man is calling aloud
from the sacred vale: 'Here am I, here am I, O God my God!' . . . whilst from
the Burning Bush breaketh forth the cry: 'Lo, the Desire of the world is made
manifest in His transcendent glory!' The Father hath come. That which ye were
promised in the Kingdom of God is fulfilled. This is the Word which the Son
veiled when He said to those around Him that at that time they could not bear
it . . . Verily the Spirit of Truth is come to guide you unto all truth . . .
He is the One Who glorified the Son and exalted His Cause . . . The Comforter
Whose advent all the scriptures have promised is now come that He may reveal
unto you all knowledge and wisdom.[304]
In this symbol-laden passage Bahá'u'lláh is shifting dramatis
personae in that he is alternating between the third person and the first of
the singular. Bahá'u'lláh also transfers between the religious
symbolism of Christianity and Judaism in that he identifies himself with the
"Son of Man" (Jesus Christ), the "Burning Bush," the "Father," the "Spirit of
Truth" and the "Comforter." The important point, however, is the final sentence
in which Bahá'u'lláh implies that he is the advent of the
promised one of "all the scriptures." In another text he says that he is "the
One Whom the heart of the world remembereth and is promised in the Books of
God."[305] Consequently, it is quite
irrelevant to ascertain whether Bahá'u'lláh identifies himself
with either four or five Manifestations of God since he is stating that every
Manifestation of God can be said to be the "return of all the Prophets," and as
was concluded in an earlier section, the exact number of Manifestations of God
is unknown.[306]
C. The Identity of the Manifestations of God
A third approach to examine the texts of identification is to look at texts
where the Bahá'í-authors emphasize the identity between the
Manifestations of God. The crucial difference here, however, is that this
identification occurs in the third form of either the singular or the plural
and not, as was seen above, in the first form of singular or the plural. The
two types of identification of texts above could therefore be defined as
specific texts of identification and this latter form as general texts of
identification. The following excerpt by Bahá'u'lláh exhibits
this general identity between the Manifestations of God:
Inasmuch as these Birds of the celestial Throne
[Manifestations of God] are all sent down from the heaven of the Will of God,
and as they all arise to proclaim His irresistible Faith, they, therefore, are
regarded as one soul and the same person. For they all drink from the one Cup
of the love of God, and all partake of the fruit of the same Tree of Oneness.[307]
In the section on Prophetology it was observed, according to the station of
essential unity, that "there is no distinction whatsoever among the Bearers of
My Message,"[308] and above it is shown
that the Manifestations of God are even to be "regarded as one soul and the
same person." Bahá'u'lláh even admonishes those who try to make a
distinction between the Manifestations of God,[309] and yet it was also clearly seen
that
each Manifestation of God occupies a station of distinction as well. This
contradiction shall now be examined by illuminating the above cited passage
with other excerpts from the Bahá'í-authors.
For example, in the following analogy and using the solar-model,
Bahá'u'lláh elaborates upon the concept of the "return":
[. . .] Muhammad, Himself, declared: "I am
Jesus." . . Thus it is that Jesus, Himself, declared: "I go away and come again
unto you." Consider the sun. Were it to say now, "I am the sun of yesterday,"
it would speak the truth. And should it, bearing the sequence of time in mind,
claim to be another sun, it still would speak the truth. In like manner, if it
be said that all the days are but one and the same, it is correct and true. And
if it be said, with respect to their particular names and designations, that
they differ, that again is true. For though they are the same, yet one doth
recognize in each a separate designation, a specific attribute, a particular
character.[310]
The interesting matter here is that Bahá'u'lláh elaborates upon
the "sequence of time" (temporal aspect) and that he later contrasts and tries
to integrate the two stations of the Manifestation of God. The last line
testifies to this: "For though they are the same" (station of unity), yet "one
doth recognize in each a separate designation, a specific attribute, a
particular character" (station of distinction). Similarly, 'Abdu'l-Bahá
writes that:
All these holy, divine Manifestations are one.
They have served one God, promulgated the same truth, founded the same
institutions and reflected the same light. Their appearances have been
successive and correlated; each One had announced and extolled the One Who was
to follow, and laid the foundation of reality. . . . the divine religions They
established have one foundation; Their teachings, proofs and evidences are one;
in name and form They differ, but in reality They agree and are the same.[311]
The identity between the Manifestations of God is seen in that they are
essentially "one." However, in the final part of this quote,
'Abdu'l-Bahá contrasts the dual station by stating that "in name and
form They differ" (station of distinction), but "in reality They agree and are
the same" (station of unity). Finally, Shoghi Effendi also writes: "No
distinction can be made amongst the Prophets in the sense that They all proceed
from One Source, and are of One Essence" (station of unity), and continues to
say "But Their stations and functions in this world are different" (station of
distinction).[312] Thus, all three
Bahá'í-authors explicitly advocates that the Manifestations of
God are identical and yet, from another point of view, they differ. This theme
shall be further developed in sections which follows.
Although Bahá'u'lláh identifies himself with the above mentioned
religious figures and claims to be the "return of all the Prophets," this
identification appears to apply according to the station of essential unity and
not according to the station of distinction. In this regard 'Abdu'l-Bahá
says that the "return" does not refer to "specific, individual souls and
identities."[313] Consequently, and as
was seen previously in the discussion on the nature of the Manifestation of
God, the Manifestations of God all have their own "distinct individuality,"
which basically means that Mirza Huseyn 'Alí is not identical to either
the individual of Muhammed or Jesus, or any other Manifestation of God. On the
other hand, there still appears to be a certain affinity, or identity, within
the station of essential unity. For example, in discussing Jesus Christ's
statement that John the Baptist was the return of "Elias"[314] 'Abdu'l-
Bahá says that:
[. . . ] if we regard the return of the
individual, it is another individual; but if we regard the qualities and
perfections, the same have returned. Therefore, when Christ said, "This is
Elias," He meant: this person is a manifestation of the bounty, the
perfections, the character, the qualities and the virtues of Elias.[315]
'Abdu'l-Bahá seems to argue that although John the Baptist denied that
he was Elias and Jesus Christ said that John the Baptist was Elias, their
contradictory statements derive from the different perspectives of either the
station of essential unity or distinction. Consequently, from the perspective
of distinction ("another individual"), John the Baptist is right.
Concomitantly, from the perspective of essential unity ("the same have
returned"), or that the return implies the return of the "qualities,
conditions, effects, perfections, and inner realities of the lights which recur
in every dispensation,"[316] Christ is
right.
From the above cited texts it is possible to say that texts of identification
emphasize the station of essential unity between the Manifestations of God
while recognizing the station of distinction. Moreover, texts of identification
do, in general, elaborate upon neither the succession, continuity, nor the
progressive nature of revelation, but focuses rather on what could be called
the esoteric dimension of revelation since this identity appears to be beyond
the ordinary spatial, temporal, and causal dimension. This dimension could also
be said to be vertical in that it accentuates the "higher" dimensions which
were described in the section on Bahá'í-cosmology.[317] However,
sometimes texts of
identification and elaboration are interspersed even within the same sentence,
which obviously makes it difficult to classify the text. Hence, it was already
seen in this section that Bahá'u'lláh spoke of the "sequence of
time" and that 'Abdu'l-Bahá mentioned that the Manifestations of God
have been "successive and correlated."
2. Texts of elaboration the exoteric
dimension
The second major level of analyzing the concept of progressive revelation will
now be studied. This will be done by examining texts of elaboration which,
rather than focusing on the station of essential unity, emphasize the station
of distinction, in that they cover dynamic themes like; the rise and fall of a
religion, the continuity and succession of religions, the concept of progress,
and the cyclical scheme of revelation. Consequently, this level of examination
elaborates and revolves around the exoteric, manifest, or horizontal axis of
progressive revelation which is spatial, temporal, and causal.
A. The rise and fall of a religion
This level of texts of elaboration focuses on a single religion, on its
inception, growth, culmination, and finally, its decline. Above, it has been
shown that the solar-model is used frequently in various contexts. The
Bahá'í-authors also employ the rising and setting of the sun in
describing the inception of revelation (religion), and compares it to the
advent, or the revelation, of the Manifestation of God who is portrayed as the
"Sun of Truth":
Consider the sun. How feeble its rays the moment
it appeareth above the horizon. How gradually its warmth and potency increase
as it approacheth its zenith, enabling meanwhile all created things to adapt
themselves to the growing intensity of its light. How steadily it declineth
until it reacheth its setting point. Were it, all of a sudden, to manifest the
energies latent within it, it would, no doubt, cause injury to all created
things . . . In like manner, if the Sun of Truth were suddenly to reveal, at
the earliest stages of its manifestation, the full measure of the potencies
which the providence of the Almighty hath bestowed upon it, the earth of human
understanding would waste away and be consumed; for men's hearts would neither
sustain the intensity of its revelation, nor be able to mirror forth the
radiance of its light. Dismayed and overpowered, they would cease to exist.[318]
In the first part of this section Bahá'u'lláh describes the
physical sun and in the latter half he compares it with the "Sun of Truth." In
both parts, this solar-model points to a gradual rise and fall of both the
physical sun and the revelation of the "Sun of Truth." The steadily decline
refers here only to the physical sun, but several other texts points indirectly
to this phenomena as a decline in religion in that the sun is described as set
or darkened.[319] This decline is viewed
as inevitable since Bahá'u'lláh metaphorically states that the
"break of the morn of divine guidance must needs follow the darkness of the
night of error."[320] Further, the
gradual rising of the sun, as it approaches the zenith, enables "all created
things" to adapt to the "growing intensity of its light." Likewise, one can
notice that the revelation is gradually growing, or increasing, in its
"intensity" which signifies a progressive character. Moreover,
Bahá'u'lláh is mentioning the "earliest stages," and the "full
measure" of revelation which has to be in direct proportion to the capacity of
the receivers.[321] Taken together, these
progressive features intimate that a revelation (religion), only is "potential"
or "latent" at its inception, and that its "full measure" unfolds sequentially
and gradually in time.
Similarly, 'Abdu'l-Bahá uses a similar model where he compares the
physical sun to the "Sun of Reality" which "rises from the horizon of the
Kingdom with the greatest power and heat." He continues to say that when "it
reaches the meridian it will begin to decline and descend, and the spiritual
summer will be followed by autumn when growth and development are
arrested."[322] First, there is an interesting
transition here in that 'Abdu'l-Bahá shifts from the solar-model to
adopt another important metaphor, that of a seasonal-model. Secondly, the terms
"growth" and "development" can be noticed, which are significant for both
spring and summer, and thus they are also highly indicative of the concept of
progress, i.e., a religion may grow and develop until a certain point and
eventually this process is "arrested."
Bahá'u'lláh also employs the seasonal-model, but it is, however,
often limited to the season of spring ("Divine Springtime" or "spiritual
Springtime"),[323] and he rarely
describes the other seasons. For example, in discussing universal and specific
revelation above, Bahá'u'lláh stated that the "cloud of the loved
One's mercy raineth . . . only in the season of spring" and that the "other
seasons have no share in this greatest grace, and barren land no portion of
this favour."[324] Hence the season of
spring seems to be superior in comparison to the other seasons.
The seasonal-model is more often used by 'Abdu'l-Bahá when outlining not
only the rise and fall of a singular religion but, as shall be seen below, in
his portrayal of the successive and continuous character of religions.
'Abdu'l-Bahá also makes the following comment in the comparison of the
seasonal-model and the "spiritual world":
The spiritual world is like unto the phenomenal
world. They are the exact counterparts of each other. Whatever objects appear
in this world of existence are the outer pictures of the world of heaven. When
we look upon the phenomenal world, we perceive that it is divided into four
seasons; one is the season of spring, another the season of summer, another of
autumn and these three seasons are followed by winter.[325]
Here one can once again discern the macro/microcosmos scheme in that the
"spiritual world" (the spiritual seasons) is reflected in the "phenomenal
world" (the four "phenomenal" seasons). Generally speaking, the usage of an
analogy rests upon the assumption that there is some degree of coherence or
resemblance between two "analogous" phenomena. Yet, 'Abdu'l-Bahá seems
here to use the concept of analogy above in a more Platonic sense in that there
is a perfect correspondence between the "spiritual world" and the "phenomenal
world" in that the objects of "this world of existence" are the "outer pictures
of the world of heaven." However, the writings of both
Bahá'u'lláh and 'Abdu'l-Bahá are replete with examples in
which they use the term "symbol" in the coherence sense while admitting that a
symbol may contain multiple levels of meanings.[326] For example, 'Abdu'l-
Bahá
states that the "outer sun is a sign or symbol of the inner and ideal Sun of
Truth, the Word of God," and that the "reality of Prophethood . . . is
symbolized by the sun, and the holy Manifestations are the dawning places or
zodiacal points."[327] Although the above
statement suggests a correspondence theory, the general context of
'Abdu'l-Bahá's writings rather supports a coherence theory. Thus, the
"spiritual world" and "phenomenal world" are coherent rather than corresponding
since they are similar but not identical, and hence can the latter, according
to its capacity, reflect the former. With this subtle nuances in mind, the
following excerpt will illustrate this theme more tacitly:
The coming of a Manifestation of God is the
season of spiritual spring. For instance, the appearance of Christ was a divine
springtime. Therefore, it caused a great commotion and vibrant movement in the
world of humanity. The Sun of Reality dawned, the cloud of mercy poured down
its rain, the breezes of providence moved, the world became a new world,
mankind reflected an extraordinary radiance, souls were educated, minds were
developed, intelligences became acute, and the human world attained a new
freshness of life, like unto the advent of spring. Then gradually that spring
was followed by the autumn of death and decay. The teachings of Christ were
forgotten. The Christly bounties ceased. Divine moralities disappeared. Day
ended in night. The people became negligent and oblivious. Minds weakened until
conditions reached such a crisis that material science rose in the ascendant.
Knowledge and sciences of the Kingdom became obsolete, the mysteries of God
deepened, and the traces of the bounties of Christ were completely obliterated.
The nations were enmeshed in superstition and blind imitation. Discord and
disagreement arose, culminating in strife, war and bloodshed. Hearts were torn
asunder in violence. Various denominations appeared, diverse sects and creeds
arose, and the whole world was plunged into darkness.[328]
In this text there is an intermingling with the seasonal-model and the advent
of the Manifestation of God, here exemplified by Jesus Christ. His arrival is
compared to a "divine springtime" where the "Sun of Reality" has dawned. Thus,
the seasonal-model (springtime) is once again correlated with the solar-model
(the break of dawn or the sunrise). These two models are then used to describe
the renewal of the world and one can also observe an educational theme here in
that "souls were educated." In other places 'Abdu'l-Bahá also states
that it is during this time that "universal progress takes place" in general,
or that "universal progress appears in the world of humanity." This further
points to the centrality of the concept of progress in
Bahá'í-apocalypticism.
Although the springtime is "the season of joy, of happiness," it is also seen
as "the day of judgment, the time of turmoil and distress." In the quote above
the season of summer is omitted, but in the previous citation by
'Abdu'l-Bahá, it was understood that he speaks of the "season of summer"
as well. Consequently, the first season (spring) is usually associated with the
advent of a Manifestation of God, of renewal and resurrection.[329] In other words,
it is viewed as the
rise of a revelation (religion). In turn, the summer is regarded as the peak,
or the zenith, of the revelation (religion) where "The word of God is exalted,
the Law of God is promulgated; all things reach perfection."[330]
Above one can also notice that spring gradually is followed by autumn which is
symbolized as "death and decay." Further, in the middle of the passage the
solar-model is ("Day ended in night") is inserted and is once again associated
with the seasonal-model. In the above mentioned model, 'Abdu'l-Bahá
draws parallels with the decline of religion, the setting of the sun, the
arrival of winter, and continues his exposition to say that eventually:
Only the name of religion of God remains, and
the exoteric forms of the divine teachings. The foundations of the Religion of
God are destroyed and annihilated, and nothing but forms and customs exist.
Divisions appear, firmness is changed into instability, and spirits become
dead; hearts languish, souls become inert, and winter arrives; that is to say,
the coldness of ignorance envelops the world and darkness of human error
prevails. After this come indifference, disobedience, inconsiderateness,
indolence, baseness, animal instincts, and the coldness and insensibility of
stones. It is like the season of winter when the terrestrial globe, deprived of
the effect of the heat of the sun, becomes desolate and dreary.[331]
In this text the term "exoteric" occurs and is associated with the phenomenal
aspects of religion. Further, if autumn represents the "fall," or decline, of
religion, then the winter season appears bring out the lower nature (animal
instincts etc.) of man.[332]
In discussing the symbols of the "sun" and the "moon" in his
Kitáb-i-Íqán Bahá'u'lláh also explains
that:
[. . . ] the "sun" and "moon" of the teachings,
laws, commandments, and prohibitions which have been established in the
preceding Dispensation, and which have overshadowed the people of that age,
become darkened, that is, are exhausted, and cease to exert their influence. .
. . the "sun" and "moon" of the teachings, the laws, and learning of a former
Dispensation have darkened and set.[333]
In this solar-model the sun is used as an illustration that a former
Dispensation (religion) has "darkened and set" (declined), and can thus be
associated with the winter-period in the seasonal-model.
Below follows a summarized scheme of some of the most common characteristics of
each "spiritual season" according to various texts by
Bahá'u'lláh, and especially by 'Abdu'l-Bahá. The first
level looks at the solar-model counterpart for each season (Spring = dawn). The
second level enumerates some organic metaphors. The third level lists some
general and recurrent features for each season. The fourth level looks at some
religious themes, and the fifth level tries to allocate some attributes among
humanity. Please note that this schematic illustration is only a structural
outline and that no causal relationships have been established here:
Table 5 (online appearance somewhat
distorted)[334]
Spring Summer
1) dawn, sun rise (morning) 1) zenith (noon)
2) vernal rain-showers (bounty) 2) flowers, blossom, fruits
3) renewal, rejuvenation, resurrection, 3) fullness, brilliancy, beauty; growth
new life, awakening, a time of turmoil and and development attain their greatest distress, joy
and happiness power, fruits will attain to the acme of perfection, grains and plants will yield
their produce, and earthly beings will attain their most complete development and growth
4) Advent of the Manifestation 4) The word of God is exalted, the Law of God
of God, the Day of Judgment, is promulgated, the teachings of God
a new creation conquer the world
5) souls are educated, 5) all things reach perfection, men become
minds are developed, educated, praiseworthy results are
intelligence becomes acute produced, universal progress appears in
the world of humanity
Fall Winter
1) sunset (afternoon) 1) night
2) flowers wither 2) trees are naked, leafless
3 ) growth and development are arrested, 3) everything is clad in the robe of death;
death and decay; unwholesome and sterile cold, darkness, tempests, death,
winds blow, it is the season of sickness, desolation; it snows, rains, hails,
when all things are withered, and the storms, thunders and lightens, freezes
balmy air is vitiated and congeals
4 ) only the name of religion of God remains 4) material science/materialism ascends,
Divine moralities disappears, only the discord and disagreement arise,
exoteric forms of the divine teachings culminating in strife, war and bloodshed,
remain, the foundations of the Religion of hearts are torn asunder in violence, various
God are destroyed and denominations appears, diverse sects and creeds arise
annihilated, and nothing but forms and
customs exist
5) people become negligent and oblivious, 5) ignorance envelops the world and
attraction and goodwill do not remain, darkness of human error prevails,
divine qualities are changed, the indifference, inconsiderateness,
radiance of hearts is dimmed, indolence, the teachings are forgotten,
spirituality of souls is altered, virtues baseness, animal instincts, coldness,
are replaced by vices, and holiness and insensibility
and purity disappear
The advantage of structurally illustrating the various religious "seasons" is
that certain patterns, or themes, start to emerge. Each season can in this way
be associated with the solar-cycle, which in turn has its corresponding organic
metaphors etc. In reviewing these metaphors, one can probably conclude that
they are not selected at random. Rather, each season has a certain value
connected with it where the first two seasons are described most favorably and
where the latter two share the most negative connotations. Hence, the metaphors
seem to be consciously employed to express a certain viewpoint on a religious
phenomenon. Therefore, in examining the concept of progressive revelation, it
is interesting to note that the theme of progress, growth and development are
especially frequent within the summer-season. It is also in this season where
the sun reaches its climax, zenith, or solstice (astronomic metaphors), and
which the blossoms and fruits appear (organic metaphors). These metaphors have
in turn their counterparts in that the religion is depicted as geographically
expanding and growing i.e., "the teachings of God conquer the world," "all
things reach perfection," and "universal progress appears in the world of
humanity." From these various allusions it plausible to assume that it is
during this period that a religion is seen its most glorious era. However, in
neither the solar-model nor in the seasonal-model have any historical
dimensions (time-periods) been discussed, but a whole section shall be devoted
to discuss this topic.[335]
It would certainly be possible to review the other seasonal-models above as
well, e.g., winter, and note that some seasonal characteristics of winter
"tempests, thunder, lightnings etc," are associated with "strife, war and
bloodshed" and the appearance of "various denominations, diverse sects and
creeds." But the important point in this context is not to analyze each season,
but to observe that revelation (religion) is viewed as a highly organic,
dynamic, and cyclical, phenomenon, and that it seems to be governed by a
similar set of laws as the phenomenal seasons. However, although this model
appears to be rather orderly and regular it shall now be discussed if humans
somehow can influence and cause the directionality of a revelation
(religion).
Instead of speaking of religion in general and the above mentioned analogous
schemes, there are other sections where both Bahá'u'lláh and
'Abdu'l-Bahá elaborate upon a known religion, or Manifestation of God.
For example, in the following passage Bahá'u'lláh describes the
decline Shí'i Islám:
Behold . . . how the sayings and doings of the
followers of Shí'ih Islám have dulled the joy and fervour of its
early days, and tarnished the pristine brilliancy of its light. In its
primitive days, whilst they still adhered to the precepts associated with the
name of their Prophet, the Lord of Mankind, their career was marked by an
unbroken chain of victories and triumphs. As they gradually strayed from the
path of their Ideal Leader and Master, as they turned away from the Light of
God and corrupted the principle of His Divine unity, and as they increasingly
centered their attention upon them who were only the revealers of the potency
of His Word, their power was turned into weakness, their glory into shame,
their courage into fear.[336]
In this excerpt the "power, glory, and courage" of the past ("early . . .
primitive days") is contrasted with the contemporary situation of Shí'i
Islám. Notice that Bahá'u'lláh is stating that the
followers have "gradually strayed from the path." Here the process of decline
does not seem to be an inevitable, or a natural, process in the sense of the
phenomenal seasons since the adherents have "turned away from the Light of
God," "corrupted the principle of His Divine unity," and have "increasingly
centered their attention upon them who were only the revealers of the potency
of His Word." This last sentence is quite ambiguous, but it is likely that the
"revealers of the potency of His Word" refer to the religious leaders (the
Imáms). The term "increasingly" also reinforces the significance of a
gradual process. The last sentence moreover exemplifies the decline in that
power has been turned into weakness, glory into shame, and courage into fear.
This method of contrasting pairs of opposite is also utilized by
'Abdu'l-Bahá while describing the decline of religion:
[. . .] the spirituality of the Religion of God
had been changed into materiality, and virtue into vices; the love of God had
been changed into hatred, enlightenment into darkness, divine qualities into
satanic ones, justice into tyranny, mercy into enmity, sincerity into
hypocrisy, guidance into error, and purity into sensuality.[337]
The first lead in this bi-polarity is also highly informative in that it
indirectly describes the positive attributes of a "true religion,"[338] either at its
moment of inception or
at its climax. 'Abdu'l-Bahá likewise comments upon the decline of
certain religions e.g.,, Judaism and Christianity.[339] However, below follows
instead an
example where 'Abdu'l-Bahá briefly elaborates on decline of Buddhism and
Confucianism[340]:
Buddha also established a new religion, and
Confucius renewed morals and ancients virtues but their institutions have been
entirely destroyed. The beliefs and rites of the Buddhists and Confucianists
have not continued in accordance with their fundamental teachings. . . but
later the original principles . . . gradually disappeared, and ignorant customs
and ceremonials arose and increased until they finally ended in the worship of
statues and images. . . It is, therefore, clear and evident that the Religion
of God does not maintain its original principles among the people, but that it
has gradually changed and altered until it has been entirely destroyed and
annihilated.[341]
This passage continues by using another common organic metaphor of religion
the "tree" which through its various phases finally
becomes "old and entirely fruitless . . . withered and decayed."[342] The important
and recurrent theme in
all the above cited passages is that revelation is gradually growing in a
similar manner as it is gradually declining. One reason for this decline is,
according to 'Abdu'l-Bahá, the "passage of time" which obscures the
fundamental principles in the religion.[343] Another reason is that "dogmas and
blind imitations" increasingly encrusts the religion. These dogmas and blind
imitations are not only viewed as one reason for the decline of the religion,
but are even considered the "cause of the decline and effacement of a
nation."[344] In this context,
'Abdu'l-Bahá contrasts the causes of development and debasement as
follows:
[ . . .] allegiance to the essential foundation
of divine religions is ever the cause of development and progress, whereas the
abandonment and beclouding of that essential reality through blind imitations
and adherence to dogmatic beliefs are the causes of a nation's debasement and
degradation.[345]
Here are two important issues to notice. First, the terms "development and
progress" are seen as diametrically opposed to "debasement and degradation" and
secondly, the adherents allegiance to either the essence of religion, or to the
dogmatic beliefs, does cause either the development, or the debasement, of a
religion or nation. Consequently, although the "section of time" may be one
factor to the decline of a religion, it is certainly not the only one.
Furthermore, although the decline of a religion is seen as an inevitable and
natural process, the adherents of a religion do seem to play a vital role in
that they may influence the rate and direction of this process. Still, this
could also be regarded as a reciprocal process since Bahá'u'lláh
also states that religion also is the cause of the "progress of the world,
[and] the development of nations," and that the decline of religion increases
the "waywardness of the ungodly" which ultimately leads to "chaos and
confusion."[346]
Moreover, the Bahá'í-authors also repeatedly refer to the
degeneration in either Persia, the Ottoman Empire, or in the world at large.
Bahá'u'lláh writes, for example, about the "perversity of the
people of this age" and that the "prevailing order appeareth to be lamentably
defective,"[347] and it is in this
context that he brings up the theme of "secularization":
The vitality of men's belief in God is dying out
in every land; nothing short of His wholesome medicine can ever restore it. The
corrosion of ungodliness is eating into the vitals of human society; what else
but the Elixir of His potent Revelation can cleanse and revive it?[348]
Here one may recognize the metaphor of the Manifestation of God as the "Divine
Physician" who, through his "wholesome medicine" is able to restore and revive
the human society from a disease, described as the "corrosion of ungodliness."
This may be interpreted as either "atheism," or the lack of vitality in one's
belief or spirituality. It is especially noteworthy that the terms "potent
Revelation" is equated with the "Elixir." Notice also that
Bahá'u'lláh is referring to the downfall of religiosity "in every
land" which is suggestive of a global process of secularization. It is hence
possible to equate the malaise of humanity, described in a previous section,
with the decline of religion. This would further accentuate the intimate and
mutual relationship between religion and humanity.
Similarly 'Abdu'l-Bahá writes about the theme of secularization in that
"irreligion has conquered religion" and the "realm of the religionist has
gradually narrowed and darkened."[349] He
continues to say that:
[ . . . ] the sphere of the materialist has
widened and advanced; for the religionist has held to imitation and
counterfeit, neglecting and discarding holiness and the sacred reality of
religion. When the sun sets, it is the time for bats to fly. They come forth
because they are creatures of the night. When the lights of religion become
darkened, the materialists appear. They are the bats of the night. The decline
of religion is their time of activity; they seek the shadows when the world is
darkened and clouds have spread over it.[350]
In this citation the rise of materialism is seen as a direct and natural
consequence of the decline of religion.[351] One can also notice the solar-model in
that the sun has set and the materialists are negatively compared to "bats" who
seek the "shadows when the world is darkened."[352] Yet, in another context,
'Abdu'l-Bahá also attributes another cause to the downfall of religion
with the "animosity and hatred existing between sects and denominations," and
the "strife and contention" exists within a single religion, ultimately leads
to religious wars and bloodshed.[353] He
continues to say that it is the "imitations" that destroy the foundation of
religion and extinguishes the spirituality of the world and concludes with the
following statement: "When materialists subject imitations to the intellectual
analysis of reason, they find them to be mere superstitions; therefore, they
deny religion."[354] Here the perspective
of the materialists seems to have altered in that it the materialist, when they
scrutinize the religion, are unable to accept it due to its "imitations" and
"superstitions." Finally, in other texts 'Abdu'l-Bahá also says that
religion does not keep pace with the reforms of society and thus becomes
increasingly inadequate and obsolete.[355]
In the World Order of Bahá'u'lláh, with headings like "The Signs
of Impending Chaos," "The Decline of Mortal Dominion," and "Breakdown of
Political and Economical Structures," Shoghi Effendi similarly and repeatedly
portrays the decline of religion, society, and civilization. He includes areas
like the "catastrophic fall of mighty monarchies and empires in the European
continent," the "fall of the Qajar dynasty," the "overthrow of the Sultanate
and the Caliphate, to the sustaining pillars of Sunni Islam." He then compares
these themes to the "destruction of Jerusalem in the latter part of the first
century of the Christian era" and the "Fall of the Roman Empire."[356] Shoghi
Effendi further states that
this decline not only "threatens to engulf the whole structure of present-day
civilization," but that the tumult "will grow in scope and in intensity" and
its ramifications will extend "over the surface of the globe."
The above described reciprocal and intricate interplay between religion and
humanity is also described by Shoghi Effendi below:
The signs of moral downfall, as distinct from
the evidences of decay in religious institutions, would appear to be no less
noticeable and significant. The decline that has set in in the fortunes of
Islamic and Christian institutions may be said to have had its counterpart in
the life and conduct of the individuals that compose them. In whichever
direction we turn our gaze, no matter how cursory our observation of the doings
and sayings of the present generation, we can not fail to be struck by the
evidences of moral decadence which, in their individual lives no less than in
their collective capacity, men and women around us exhibit. There can be no
doubt that the decline of religion as a social force, of which the
deterioration of religious institutions is but an external phenomenon, is
chiefly responsible for so grave, so conspicuous an evil.[357]
Here one can discern yet another explanation on the same topic. The downfall of
religion is analyzed and subdivided into its internal (the individual members)
and external (the religious institutions) components. This relationship is
consequently described as intimately connected. Due to the downfall of morals
in the former, the latter has ceased to be a "social force." Yet, since the
religion is comprised of individuals, the "deterioration of religious
institutions is but an external phenomenon." Thus, the last phrase implies that
the individuals are the internal cause of the deterioration of religious
institutions and ultimately, to the decline of religion as a whole. In another
context, discussing various religions, Shoghi Effendi surprisingly refers to
the religious decline as being "progressive,"[358] and hence one can observe that
the
usage of this term is not solely limited to an evolutionary or unilinear
perspective, but that it also can describe a gradual process. However, in the
vast majority of contexts the term "progressive" still connotes a positive and
evolutionary concept.
In conclusion, for whatever reasons, or causes, the original religion either
gradually progresses or declines, 'Abdu'l-Bahá's remarks that "if
religions did not change and alter, there would be no need of renewal."[359] The
implication here seems to be that
change is the ultimate and inevitable cause of the decline, and thus it is
important to emphasize that this change is not unilinear, but is, as was
observed, either in the "rise" (progressive) or in the "fall" (declining). Both
processes do, however, tend to be slow and gradual, and therefore they are
suggestive of extensive time-intervals. 'Abdu'l-Bahá's reasoning seem to
be that since religions inevitably do decline, at some point or another, they
will eventually be in need of renewal and restoration. He further says that due
to this factor of change, the "manifestation is renewed, and a new religion
[is] established."[360] The expression
the "manifestation is renewed" is, as was previously seen, identical to the
concept of the "return" of the Manifestation of God. The next section will
analyze what this renewal of religion is.
B. The succession and continuity of religions
Beyond the single religion, or the general concept of religion, one can in
texts of elaboration discern a second theme which, in a broader sense,
emphasize the succession and continuity of two or more religions. If the texts
of identification describe the unity between various Manifestations of God in
the esoteric dimension, this level of texts of elaboration describe their unity
in the exoteric dimension. However, these two types, or levels, of texts are
sometimes interspersed within each other which makes it difficult to determine
the exact "level" of the text. Hence, while examining texts of identification
it was previously shown that in the solar-model of the "return" of the
Manifestations of God Bahá'u'lláh also mentioned the "sequence of
time." Further, one could also observe that when Bahá'u'lláh
identified himself with various religious figures, he unfolded this
identification sequentially, beginning with Abraham and ending with the
Báb. Moreover, it was also shown that texts of identification could be
described as either general or specific, i.e., Bahá'u'lláh could
either identified himself directly and specifically with various Manifestations
of God, or the Bahá'í-authors described this identity in an
indirect and general fashion. Similarly, the Manifestation of God can also in
texts of elaboration be described in general or specific terms. The following
excerpts may serve as examples of general texts of elaboration by
Bahá'u'lláh which convey the theme of succession and/or
continuity in religion:
These Mirrors [Manifestations of God] will
everlastingly succeed each other, and will continue to reflect the light of the
Ancient of Days. They that reflect their glory will, in like manner, continue
to exist for evermore, for the Grace of God can never cease from flowing.[361]
The Revelation sent down by God hath most surely been repeated, and the
outstretched Hand of Our power hath overshadowed all that are in the heavens
and all that are on the earth.[362]
This is the changeless Faith of God, eternal in the past, eternal in the
future.[363]
In the first example one can observe that when the Manifestations of God are
being referred to, they are described in the third form of the plural. The
second and third examples only briefly describe the succession, or the
continuity, of either revelation or religion. The last sentence in the first
example is particularly interesting since, it was noted above in the discussion
on specific revelation, that to "each time and era a portion is allotted and a
bounty set apart, this in a given measure."[364] Yet, the excerpt above states that
it
"can never cease from flowing." One solution to this paradox is to say that
specific revelation, although it is "seasonal," or "repeated," it is
nevertheless perpetual. This passage is also similar to the one discussed in
Prophetology where Bahá'u'lláh writes that "God hath sent down
His Messengers to succeed to Moses and Jesus, and He will continue to do so."[365]
In both quotations the two terms
"succeed" and "continue" are clearly noticeable and thus conveys the theme of
succession and continuity respectively.
In the beginning of this chapter it was stated that Bahá'u'lláh
used the chain-model to describe "the chain of successive Revelations that hath
linked the Manifestations."[366] The
analogy of using a chain, which consists of a sequence of rings, suggests a
sequence of revelations which are both successive (specific) as well as
continuous (linked). Consequently, the two first examples above describe a
dynamic pattern of change, or the exoteric dimension of revelation (succession,
repetition), while the third example briefly mentions the non-change, or the
esoteric dimension of religion. The theme of change and non-change of
revelation shall be further developed in the section below.[367]
The clearest and most abundant cases of texts of elaboration, in the writings
of Bahá'u'lláh, are those which are more specific, i.e., which
specifically refer to other Manifestations of God or religions. As was noticed
above in the discussion of texts of identification, Bahá'u'lláh
identified himself with a sequence of religious figures. It is interesting to
compare the text of identification above with the following specific text of
elaboration:
Among the Prophets was Noah . . . And after Noah
the light of the countenance of Húd shone forth above the horizon of
creation. . . . And after Him there appeared . . . the holy person of
Sálih, Who again summoned the people to the river of everlasting life. .
. . Later, . . . the Friend of God [Abraham] appeared from behind the veil . .
. And when His day was ended, there came the turn of Moses. . . . And when the
days of Moses were ended . . . the light of Jesus . . . encompassed the
world.[368]
The text used above has been severely edited and abbreviated for this thesis
since it is several pages in length, but still, it gives an idea of the
structure of a specific texts of elaboration. Thus, the text synchronically
lists a sequence of Manifestations of God, beginning with Noah and ending with
Jesus Christ, and for each Manifestation of God Bahá'u'lláh
elaborates on a certain theme. The crucial difference, however, between a
specific text of identification and a specific text of elaboration is that in
the former the Manifestations of God are always described in the first form of
the singular or plural whereas the latter always portrays them in the third
form of the singular or the plural.
In a mystical section in the Kitáb-i-Íqán, while
describing the path of a seeker, Bahá'u'lláh alludes to the
entrance into what he metaphorically describes as the "City of Certitude." This
metaphor is also portrayed in the following citation:
Once in about a thousand years shall this City
be renewed and re-adorned . . . That city is none other than the Word of God
revealed in every age and dispensation. In the days of Moses it was the
Pentateuch; in the days of Jesus the Gospel; in the days of Muhammad the
Messenger of God the Qur'án; in this day the Bayán; and in the
dispensation of Him Whom God will make manifest His own Book.[369]
Here the estimated time-period of about a "thousand years" for the renewal of
the "Word of God" is clearly recognized. The "Word of God" is described as
being "revealed" and could therefore be equated with the term "revelation." The
identification with various "revealed scriptures" further suggests this. The
phrase "in every age" implies a repeated pattern of renewal of about a thousand
years. Bahá'u'lláh then enumerates a synchronic sequence of five
Manifestations of God into which he indirectly includes himself; Moses, Jesus,
Muhammad, the Báb (who revealed the Bayán), and
Bahá'u'lláh ("Him Whom God will make manifest").[370] Each
Manifestation of God is also
associated with a "Book" which reveals "the Word of God": the Pentateuch, the
Gospel, the Qur'án, the Bayán, and finally,
Bahá'u'lláh's "own Book."[371]
Above one can notice in the two quotations that the sequence of Manifestations
of God varies. From this it is possible to conclude that it is not the listed
Manifestations of God in each sequence which is significant, but rather that
Bahá'u'lláh identifies himself in such a sequence of
Manifestations of God who, "in every age and dispensation," reveals and renews
the "Word of God" (revelation). Thus, in certain text of elaboration,
especially those dealing with succession and continuity, there may be an
element of text of identification as well.
In the previous section it was observed that both Bahá'u'lláh and
'Abdu'l-Bahá used the solar-model to describe the rise and fall of a
religion. Below 'Abdu'l-Bahá is again using this model, but in a
slightly different context:
The physical sun has its rising and its setting.
The earthly world has its day and night. . . . The Sun of Reality, likewise,
has its rising and setting. There is a day and night in the world of
spirituality. After each departure there is a return and the dawning light of a
new day.[372]
In this general text of elaboration, 'Abdu'l-Bahá not only illustrates
the rise and fall of a religion, but continues to say that "there is a return
and the dawning light of a new day." The sunset is therefore not seen as the
end but the beginning of something new a "new day." Elsewhere, while
discussing the "oneness of the Manifestations of God," 'Abdu'l-Bahá
employs the solar-model in yet a third way. In describing the Manifestations of
God as "successive manifestations," he states that the "sun is one and the same
but its points of dawning are various." He continues by intermingling the
solar-model with the seasonal- model in a quite different fashion:
During the summer season it rises from the
northern point of the ecliptic; in winter it appears from the southern point of
rising. Each month between it appears from a certain zodiacal position.
Although these dawning-points are different, the sun is the same sun which has
appeared from them all. The significance is the reality of prophethood which is
symbolized by the sun, and the holy Manifestations are the dawning-places or
zodiacal points.[373]
Consequently, one can see that the appearance of the Manifestations of God
occur within the time-span of the solar-year and are described as the
"dawning-places or zodiacal points" of the sun, i.e., the astrological
constellation into which the sun rises each day. Furthermore, the "reality" of
the Manifestations of God is viewed from the station of essential unity ("the
sun is one"), while their successive appearances is seen from the station of
distinction ("but its points of dawning are various"). It should also be noted
here that 'Abdu'l-Bahá clearly admits that he is using these metaphors
in a symbolic way.
In the previous section 'Abdu'l-Bahá used the seasonal-model to describe
the rise and fall of a religion and above it was shown that the solar-model
described succession of revelation as the "dawning light of a new day."
'Abdu'l-Bahá also uses the seasonal-model in a similar manner in that
the "spiritual springtime returns and a new cycle appears."[374] This theme is
portrayed in the
following passage:
The divine religions are like the progression of
the seasons of the year . . . This is the continuous cycle of the seasons
spring, winter, then the return of spring. But though the calender
changes and the years move forward, each springtime that comes is the return of
the springtime that has gone; this spring is the renewal of the former spring.
Springtime is springtime, no matter when or how often it comes. The divine
Prophets are as the coming of spring, each renewing and quickening the
teachings of the Prophet Who came before Him.[375]
Here the comparison between the "divine Religions" and the "progression of the
seasons" is evident, and thus one can once again discern yet another cyclical
theme of revelation and religion. Although the seasons are viewed as cyclical,
the process itself is also designated as "continuous," which briefly points to
the theme of change and non-change in religion. Notice also that each spring is
seen as the "return of the springtime that has gone," which suggests a certain
pattern of repetition.
In discussing text of identification above, it was also seen that
'Abdu'l-Bahá described the appearances of the Manifestations of God as
being "successive and correlated."[376]
He moreover portrays this process as "continuous" and compares it to the rays
which emanates from the center of the sun.[377] In another passage he starts with
a
general text of elaboration, stating that:
From time immemorial the divine teachings have
been successively revealed, and the bounties of the Holy Spirit have ever been
emanating. All the teachings are one reality, for reality is single and does
not admit multiplicity. Therefore, the divine Prophets are one, inasmuch as
They reveal one reality, the Word of God.[378]
The text then continues to be of a more specific character in that he
synchronically enumerates the following sequence of Manifestations of God:
"Abraham announced teachings founded upon reality, Moses proclaimed reality,
Christ established reality and Bahá'u'lláh was the Messenger and
Herald of Reality."[379] In the next
quote he does exactly the reverse. The text starts with a specific
Manifestation of God whereupon it immediately proceeds to become more of a
general text of elaboration:
From the days of Adam until today, the religions
of God have been made manifest, one following the other, and each one of them
fulfilled its due function, revived mankind, and provided education and
enlightenment. They freed the people from the darkness of the world of nature
and ushered them into the brightness of the Kingdom. As each succeeding Faith
and Law became revealed, it remained for some centuries a richly fruitful tree
and to it was committed the happiness of humankind. However, as the centuries
rolled by, it aged, it flourished no more and put forth no fruit, wherefore was
it then made young again. The religion of God is one religion, but it must ever
be renewed.[380]
The successive character of revelation can here be observed in the statements
which describe the religions as "one following the other" or "each succeeding
Faith." One may also notice the educational feature of the Manifestation of God
who provide "education and enlightenment." The next part is especially
interesting where the various religions again are organically compared to a
tree-metaphor which remains "for some centuries a richly fruitful tree." This
further indicates a time-period of a religion's duration, and can in turn be
compared to Bahá'u'lláh's estimate above of a "thousand years."
The text further reiterates this time-period in that the centuries roll by and
the tree ceases to produce fruit. This can be interpreted that the "tree of
religion" has entered the winter-season ("it aged"), and that eventually, the
spring will make it "young again." The last sentence is also suggestive of the
esoteric unity of religions, while the renewal of religion may describe its
exoteric and multiple dimension. In other words, the imagery portrays that the
"tree of religion" remains one and the same throughout the seasons, while its
renewal may be seen in its periodic manifestation of leaves, flowers, and
fruits.
In his Promised Day is Come, in a chapter entitled "The Continuity of
Revelation," Shoghi Effendi devotes a lengthy discussion to the topic of
succession and continuity of religion which is illustrated by the following
paragraph:
Repudiating the claim of any religion to be the
final revelation of God to man, disclaiming finality for His own Revelation,
Bahá'u'lláh inculcates the basic principle of the relativity of religious
truth, the continuity of Divine Revelation, the progressiveness of religious
experience.[381]
Here the phrase the "continuity of Divine Revelation" is upheld, together with
the "relativity of religious truth," as a basic principle. Note also that this
sentence is immediately followed by the concept of "progressiveness of
religious experience." In other contexts Shoghi Effendi also refers to themes
like "successive Dispensations," "successive Founders," that revelation is
"continuous" and that the various religions of the world are recognized as
having a "sequence," an "interdependence . . . wholeness and unity."[382]
Finally, there are also a few passages which could be regarded as text of
elaboration, and which emphasize the theme of succession and continuity, since
they deal with the aspect of "prophecy." In other words, these texts imply that
there is an awareness, or innate knowledge, of the succession and continuity
among the Manifestations of God themselves. For example,
Bahá'u'lláh states that:
[. . . ] all the Prophets of God whenever made
manifest unto the peoples of the world, have invariably foretold the coming of
yet another Prophet after them, and have established such signs as would herald
the advent of the future Dispensation.[383]
Here Bahá'u'lláh seem to indicate that each manifestation of God
is somehow announcing the advent of "another Prophet" and a "future
Dispensation." 'Abdu'l-Bahá likewise says that "Each of the holy
Manifestations announced the glad tidings of His successor, and each One
confirmed the message of His predecessor."[384] This last sentence adds another
aspect
to the continuity of revelation in that the Manifestation of God is conscious
of, and connected, with Manifestations of God in the past (the "predecessor")
and of the future (the "successor"). This theme is expressed more elaborately
in the next citation by 'Abdu'l-Bahá where he lists a sequence of
Manifestations of God described as the "Founders of the various
religious systems":
The holy Manifestations Who have been the
Sources or Founders of the various religious systems were united and agreed in
purpose and teaching. Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad, the
Báb, and Bahá'u'lláh are one in spirit and reality.
Moreover, each Prophet fulfilled the promise of the One Who came before Him
and, likewise, Each announced the One Who would follow. Consider how Abraham
foretold the coming of Moses, and Moses embodied Abrahamic statement. Moses
prophesied the Messianic cycle, and Christ fulfilled the law of Moses. It is
evident, therefore, that the Holy Manifestations Who founded the religious
systems are united and agreed; there is no differentiation possible in Their
mission and teachings; all are reflectors of reality, and all are promulgators
of the religion of God. The divine religion is reality, and reality is not
multiple; it is one.[385]
Here it is possible to recognize how the miscellaneous key terms and concepts,
discussed in previous chapters and sections, converge within a single passage.
For example, earlier it was observed that the Manifestations of God, from their
station of essential unity, were regarded as "one soul and the same person,"
and elsewhere Bahá'u'lláh says that they are "one spirit, one
being, one revelation."[386] From this
perspective one can also understand why they are regarded as "united and agreed
in purpose and teaching." Nevertheless, the successive theme of Manifestations
of God has also been clearly delineated above and hence, from the perspective
of the station of distinction, each one of the Manifestations of God is known
by a "different name, is characterized by a special attribute, fulfils a
definite Mission, and is entrusted with a particular Revelation."
In examining texts of elaboration above, it was possible to distinguish between
the two dimensions of progressive revelation; the esoteric (the station of
essential unity) which primarily emphasize the essential identity of the
Manifestations of God, and the exoteric dimension (the station of distinction),
which focuses on the succession and continuity between the various
Manifestations of God. Although these, and the above statements, admit of an
apparent diversity, it is nevertheless the underlying unity which is seen as
the fundamental reality. Examples of these themes are also seen in other
statements by Bahá'u'lláh in which he says that the
Manifestations of God have appeared "in diverse attire" or that they are the
"accents of God Himself,"[387] and hence
'Abdu'l-Bahá states that "reality is not multiple; it is one."
Consequently, as was previously stated and shown in this section, texts of
elaboration delineate an exoteric unity of the various Manifestations of God in
that the different revelations are perceived as fundamentally and coherently
interrelated (successive and continuous). This section therefore serves as a
general frame of reference for the next section which will examine the exoteric
differences, or distinctions, between the Manifestations of God and the
religions.
C. Differences between the Manifestations of God and the Concept of Progress
The concept of progress, as has been seen previously, could be recognized
already in the field of Bahá'í-cosmology, where
'Abdu'l-Bahá writes about the "progressive process of creation," and
that "'Progress' is the expansion of spirit in the world of matter." It was
observed that all beings progress within their own kingdoms or planes of
existence. Further, it was also shown that the human species, although being
primarily spiritual, has successively progressed through the lower kingdoms,
and is further distinguished from these in that it can evolve and transfer
towards the higher or more spiritual kingdoms. Moreover, it was also noticed in
the first section of this chapter that each religion progresses up to a certain
point and then gradually starts to decline. In the following two sections, this
progressive theme shall be explored to see whether it goes beyond the theme of
succession and continuity of revelation. In other words, the question here is
not only if there is a concept of progress in a religion and between religions,
but also what it is that progresses? In the final section the eventual goal of
progressive revelation shall be examined.
The concept of progress, being dynamic by nature, as have been shown, is more
associated with that of the exoteric and horizontal axis than the esoteric and
vertical axis of revelation. Consequently, it is in the context of the station
of distinction among the Manifestations of God where this concept is expressed
most clearly. For example, Bahá'u'lláh states that it is because
of this "difference in their station and mission" that the Manifestations of
God "appear to diverge and differ."[388]
In other words, although the Manifestations of God are esoterically unified,
they have, nonetheless, different "stations" and "missions" in the world.
Earlier it was noticed that the solar-model is frequently employed in
describing either the nature of the Manifestations of God, their relationship
with God, or their relationships between each other. It is however interesting
to observe that when Bahá'u'lláh is portraying the station of
distinction between the diverse Manifestations of God, and the variations in
the measure of revelation, he prefers to use a metaphor of the moon, or a
lunar-model. One reason for this may be that the sun is usually attributed with
permanence and unity, whereas the moon more often associated with change and
diversity:
Every true Prophet hath regarded His Message as
fundamentally the same as the Revelation of every other Prophet gone before Him
. . . The measure of the revelation of the Prophets of God in this world,
however, must differ. Each and every one of them hath been the Bearer of a
distinct Message, and hath been commissioned to reveal Himself through specific
acts. It is for this reason that they appear to vary in their greatness. Their
Revelation may be likened unto the light of the moon that sheddeth its radiance
upon the earth. Though every time it appeareth, it revealeth a fresh measure of
its brightness, yet its inherent splendour can never diminish, nor can its
light suffer extinction. It is clear and evident, therefore, that any apparent
variation in the intensity of their light is not inherent in the light itself,
but should rather be attributed to the varying receptivity of an ever-changing
world.[389]
Here it can be clearly seen that the "measure of the revelation" is not
constant, but that it may differ for each Manifestation of God. The station of
distinction is also seen in that each Manifestation of God is the "Bearer of a
distinct Message," and that he reveals himself through "specific acts." That is
why the Manifestations of God "appear to vary in their greatness." It can also
be noted that when the moon appears, it reveals "a fresh measure," which
connotes to the vernal theme of renewal and rejuvenation. The analogy basically
conveys that the moon, on the one hand, is permanently illumined with a
constant emanation of radiance, but on the other hand, due to its relationship
with the earth, it "appears" to vary in its intensity. Thus, the model
illustrates that the Manifestations of God from one perspective are essentially
one and the same (esoteric), but from another perspective, they appear to be
different due to the "varying receptivity of an ever-changing world"
(exoteric). Yet, another theme also emerges, that of "an ever-changing world,"
a factor which will be examined below. Moreover, in the excerpt above,
Bahá'u'lláh only ascribes a "variation" in either the intensity
of revelation, or in the receptivity, but he does not specify any
directionality of this variation, i.e., if it is decreasing or increasing. Yet,
using a lunar-model in portraying the variation and measure of revelation
suggests that the intensity of light is coupled with the lunar-phases
(crescent, new-moon, half-moon, full-moon, etc). Consequently, it would mean
that the measure of revelation first gradually is increasing and subsequently
decreasing. This model would thus be in full agreement with the solar- and
seasonal-models.
There is another passage where Bahá'u'lláh elaborates upon the
relationship various measures of revelation, but this time in relation to
himself:
The Revelation of which I am the bearer, is
adapted to humanity's spiritual receptiveness and capacity; otherwise, the
Light that shines within me can neither wax nor wane. Whatever I manifest is
nothing more or less than the measure of the Divine glory which God has bidden
me reveal.[390]
In this passage it is possible to see that there is a clear distinction between
the esoteric measure of revelation which is constant (it "can neither wax nor
wane") and the exoteric measure of revelation which, as has been stated
earlier, "is adapted to humanity's spiritual receptiveness and capacity." It is
in this second measure where the measure can vary, but again
Bahá'u'lláh does not specify the directionality. However, in the
Kitáb-i-Íqán, Bahá'u'lláh addresses various
religious themes and symbols, and one of these deals with a Qur'ánic
verse in which he comments upon the symbolic meaning of "heaven":
As He hath said: "When the heaven shall be
cloven asunder." [Qur'án 82:1] By "heaven" is meant the heaven of divine
Revelation, which is elevated with every Manifestation, and rent asunder with
every subsequent one. By "cloven asunder" is meant that the former Dispensation
is superseded and annulled.[391]
In this commentary one can readily see that the symbol of "heaven" is equated
with "divine Revelation" which is "elevated with every Manifestation." The
terms "every subsequent one" alludes to the successive theme of revelation, and
together with the term "elevated," they point to a gradual and successive
elevation of revelation, i.e., progressive revelation. Moreover, the term
"elevated" here seem to suggest that it also is a "higher revelation" since it
not only "supersedes" but also "annuls" the former religion. If the first term
means that the new revelation is a "higher revelation," the second pair of
terms suggests that the older form of revelation is antiquated or obsolete.[392]
In order to understand the theme of elevation or progress in revelation it is
now necessary to briefly explore a related area that of change and
non-change in revelation (religion). About this topic Bahá'u'lláh
says the following:
Know thou . . . that in every age and
dispensation all Divine Ordinances are changed and transformed according to the
requirements of the time, except the law of love, which like unto a fountain,
flows always and is never overtaken by change.[393]
Here the primary factor for change is the "requirements of the time," and yet,
the "law of love" remains constant and unaltered throughout the different
religions. Consequently, there appears to be two aspects of revelation, one
which is non-changing and the other which is subjected to change and
transformation.
In like manner, 'Abdu'l-Bahá also indirectly discusses two aspects of
the "divine religions" as follows:
As regards the inculcation of morality and the
development of human virtues, there is no difference whatsoever between the
teachings of Zoroaster, Jesus or Bahá'u'lláh. In this they agree;
they are one. The second aspect of the divine religions is nonessential. It
concerns human needs and undergoes change in every cycle according to the
exigency of the time.[394]
Similarly to Bahá'u'lláh's account above, one can first observe
that there is a dual notion of revelation, one "non-essential" and one
"essential." However, although 'Abdu'l-Bahá does not directly define the
first aspect above, he does refer, as shall be seen in the next quote, to the
first aspect as the "fundamental basis," or the "essence of the Law," and he
also uses the terms the "fundamental principle of the religion," and the
"foundation of the religion."[395]
Secondly, the latter aspect of the "divine religions," which concerns "human
needs," is subjected to change. Thirdly, one can recognize that the factor of
"exigency of the time" is once again referred to.
In the following two passages 'Abdu'l-Bahá elaborates more in detail
about the dual parts of the "law of God":
[. . .] the law of God is divided into two
parts. One is the fundamental basis which comprises spiritual things
that is to say, it refers to spiritual virtues and divine qualities; this does
not change nor alter: it is the Holy of the Holies, which is the essence of the
Law of Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Christ, Muhammad, the Báb and
Bahá'u'lláh, and which lasts and is established in all the
prophetic cycles. It will never be abrogated, for it is spiritual and not
material truth; it is faith, knowledge, certitude, justice, piety,
righteousness, trustworthiness, love of God, benevolence, purity, detachment,
humility, meekness, patience and constancy. It shows mercy to the poor, defends
the oppressed, gives to the wretched and uplifts the fallen. These divine
qualities, these eternal commandments, will never be abolished; nay, they will
last and remain established for ever and ever. These virtues of humanity will
be renewed in each of the different cycles; for at the end of every cycle the
Spiritual Law of God that is to say, the human virtues
disappear, and only the forms subsists.[396]
The first aspect of the law of God clearly emphasizes a fundamental and
essential unity in the revelation between the various Manifestations of God.
'Abdu'l-Bahá thus enumerates a number of "spiritual virtues and divine
qualities" which are non-changing in each revelation, and hence this part of
the law will "never be abrogated," and he therefore refers to them as "eternal
commandments." However, even though this part of the law is non-changing and
eternal, it is nonetheless "renewed in the cycle of every Prophet," and hence
this part of the law always reappears with each new Manifestation of God. In
both quotations above, 'Abdu'l-Bahá uses the concept of the "cycle," and
as shall be seen in the next section, this may refer to either a specific
religion or period of revelation.
As to the second aspect or part of the law of God 'Abdu'l-Bahá continues
to say that:
The second part of the Religion of God, which
refers to the material world, and which comprises fasting, prayer, forms of
worship, marriage and divorce, the abolition of slavery, legal processes,
transactions, indemnities for murder, violence, theft and injuries
this part of the Law of God, which refers to material things, is modified and
altered in each prophetic cycle in accordance with the necessities of the
times.[397]
By contrasting the two parts of the law of God, the "essential" with the
"non-essential," one can see that 'Abdu'l-Bahá refers to the former as
"spiritual," or "human virtues," and the second one as dealing with "material
things." In comparing the list of virtues, or "material things," it appears
that the former primarily deals with individual qualities, while the latter is
mainly concerned with social transactions, or "human needs." Although both
aspects of the law are revealed by each new Manifestation of God, it is only
the latter part that is "modified and altered." So, while the former remains an
absolute essence with each revelation, and is therefore only "renewed," the
second part can be seen as a relative non-essential since it is
subjected to modification and alteration and consequently, it
"undergoes change in every cycle." This latter aspect of the law is thereby, as
Bahá'u'lláh mentioned previously, subjected to "abrogation" and
"annulment" by each subsequent Manifestation of God, and it is therefore in
this "non-essential" aspect of religion, according to Shoghi Effendi, where the
revelations of the Manifestations of God differs.
It is now time to turn to an earlier but partially quoted excerpt by Shoghi
Effendi which further elucidates and summarizes some of the points discussed
above:
The fundamental principle enunciated by
Bahá'u'lláh . . . is that religious truth is not absolute but
relative, that Divine Revelation is a continuous and progressive process, that
all the great religions of the world are divine in origin, that their basic
principles are in complete harmony, that their aims and purposes are the same,
that their teachings are but facets of one truth, that their functions are
complementary, that they differ only in the non-essential aspects of their
doctrines, and that their missions represent successive stages in the spiritual
evolution of human society.[398]
First of all one may observe, in the first part of this citation, the esoteric
dimension which emphasizes that "Divine Revelation" has a "divine origin," that
the religions are "continuous," and "their aims and purposes are the same." In
other words, this dimension identifies the source, course, and goal of
revelation as identical. Secondly, one may also note the exoteric dimension
which expresses various distinctions and states that "their teachings are but
facets of one truth," "their functions are complementary," and that "they
differ only in the non-essential aspects of their doctrines." The last sentence
is especially meaningful since it further underlines the theme discussed above,
i.e., the differences between the various religions are not essential
(absolute), but only "non-essential" (relative). However, to equate the terms
essential with the absolute and non-essential with the relative may be
problematic, since the opening line states that "religious truth is not
absolute but only relative," while the last quotation continues to say that
"their teachings are but facets of one truth."
This statement is reminiscent of the concept of God, which was discussed in an
antecedent chapter and which now can be related to the above as follows. The
essence of God, which may be equated with "the absolute" or "truth," can not be
completely known by any Manifestation of God and consequently, it can not be
fully known through any particular religion or revelation. It is rather seen as
an integral part of a continuous and progressive revelatory process in that
each subsequent religion may reflect some greater "facets of one truth" which
ultimately is the essence of God. Thus, religious truth can be seen as
"relative," not only because each religion stands in an intimate relation to
every other religion, but primarily because it only can transmit a partial
aspect of the truth, or a specific "measure of Revelation." Another interesting
term in the above passage is that Shoghi Effendi states that the various
religions are "complementary," which also points to the theme that no religion
possesses the full and final revelation of God, but that the religions are
fundamentally and mutually interrelated.
If the first level of Shoghi Effendi's cited passage emphasizes the essential
unity, or the esoteric dimension, the second level emphasizes the non-essential
diversity, or the exoteric dimension, and hence one can observe that these
dimensions are deeply intertwined. Yet, there is another level of this quote
which may seem to integrate these two views, and which sees revelation as a
"progressive process" and the various religions as "successive stages in the
spiritual evolution of human society." Not only is the progressive and
evolutionary concept clearly expressed in terms of religion or revelation, but
one can further recognize that it is related to "human society" as well.
This idea, that the growth of revelation is intimately related to the
development of humanity, is also expressed in the following paragraph by
'Abdu'l-Bahá:
The more the world of humanity develops, the
more the effulgences or emanations of Divinity will become revealed, just as
the stone, when it becomes polished and pure as a mirror, will reflect in
fuller degree the glory and splendor of the sun.[399]
The increase of "effulgences or emanations of Divinity" could be interpreted as
a growth of revelation and is, moreover, seen as a direct consequence of the
development of the "world of humanity." Again the mirror-model can be noticed
in connection with humanity which, potentially, may reflect in various degrees
the "glory and splendor of the sun," i.e., the "emanations of Divinity." The
next paragraph by 'Abdu'l-Bahá further elaborates on this theme:
[T]he dispensations of past ages are intimately
connected with those that follow them: indeed, they are one and the same, but
as the world groweth, so doth the light, so doth the downpour of heavenly
grace, and then the Day-Star shineth out in noonday splendour.[400]
In this citation one can first distinguish the theme of the esoteric dimension
in the context of the continuity and succession of the religions. After that
comes an explanation of why the "light," or the "downpour of heavenly grace,"
must grow. Together, the terms "grow" and "downpour of heavenly grace" are
highly suggestive of a progressive theme of revelation. It is, however, unclear
what 'Abdu'l-Bahá means by the phrase that the "world groweth," but it
could refer to either the Násút level in general, the human
world, or the human society, but in the passage below, the expression "the
world of existence" may elucidate this phrase.
The next passage by 'Abdu'l-Bahá clearly shows that the rain-model is
utilized once again to illustrate the progressive nature of revelation:
[ . . . ] revelation is progressive and
continuous. It never ceases. It is necessary that the reality of Divinity with
all its perfections and attributes should become resplendent in the human
world. The reality of Divinity is like an endless ocean. Revelation may be
likened to the rain. Can you image the cessation of rain? Ever on the face of
the earth somewhere rain is pouring down. Briefly, the world of existence is
progressive. It is subject to development and growth. Consider how great has
been the progress in this radiant century. Civilization has unfolded. Nations
have developed. Industrialism and jurisprudence have expanded. Sciences,
inventions and discoveries have increased. All of these show that the world of
existence is continuously progressing and developing; and therefore, assuredly,
the virtues characterizing the maturity of man must, likewise, expand and
grow.[401]
A couple of points are observed here. First, it is interesting that the
"reality of Divinity" is compared to "an endless ocean" while revelation itself
is "likened to the rain." This set of metaphors suggests the non-changing and
infinite nature of Divinity as the ultimate source of revelation. In turn,
associating revelation with "rain" may hint to its particular nature, but also
its continuous and successive character.[402] The question "Can you
image
the cessation of rain?" may be interpreted and paraphrased as
"Can you imagine the finality of revelation?" and may
therefore be seen to address the claim of finality in revelation, an issue that
shall be examined in the final section of this chapter. Secondly, revelation is
clearly described not only as being continuous but, more importantly, as
progressive. In another context, where 'Abdu'l-Bahá describes religion
as being progressive, he further states that if religion is "non-progressive it
is without the divine life; it is dead."[403] Thirdly, the "world of existence" is
also depicted as progressive. In this connection one can note that
'Abdu'l-Bahá associated the following areas with the concept of
progress: civilization, nations, industrialism, jurisprudence, sciences,
inventions and discoveries. Fourth, these two progressive spheres, the
revelatory and the worldly, are seen as parallel, and 'Abdu'l-Bahá
thereby draws the conclusion that the "maturity of man must, likewise, expand
and grow." Elsewhere he also says that "in the contingent world, the human
species hath undergone progressive physical changes and, by a slow process,
hath scaled the ladder of civilization."[404] This sentence is highly suggestive of
a gradual and sequential advancement of the human civilization.
Earlier it was also shown that the first aspect of the law concerned the
development of human virtues, while the second part applied to social and
material transactions. This is an important distinction, since although
'Abdu'l-Bahá is quite positive to the above mentioned "material"
progress, often referred to as a "material civilization," this is only one
aspect of a more profound evolutionary process, which ultimate purpose is to
establish a "divine civilization" in which the spiritual abilities of human
beings will fully develop.[405]
Shoghi Effendi also employs a similar analogy of the development of humanity
with the "measure of Divine Revelation":
Just as the organic evolution of mankind has
been slow and gradual, and involved successively the unification of the family,
the tribe, the city-state, and the nation, so has the light vouchsafed by the
Revelation of God, at various stages in the evolution of religion, and
reflected in the successive Dispensations in the past, been slow and
progressive. Indeed the measure of Divine Revelation, in every age, has been
adapted to, and commensurate with, the degree of social progress achieved in
that age by a constantly evolving humanity.[406]
Many of the previously discussed themes are imbedded in this single and compact
statement. The evolution of mankind is here portrayed as being organic and
constantly evolving. This process of evolution is, moreover, described as
"slow," "gradual," and "successive," and as having various levels, or stages,
of unification: family, tribe, city-state, and nation. Shoghi Effendi then
compares the evolution of humanity with the "Revelation of God," and says that
it similarly has existed at various "stages in the evolution of religion." This
process is concomitantly described as being "slow," "successive," and
"progressive." The final sentence integrates these two processes of evolution
in that it says that the "measure of Divine Revelation, in every age, has been
adapted to, and commensurate with, the degree of social progress achieved in
that age by a constantly evolving humanity." In both examples above, one can
clearly observe that both 'Abdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi ascertain
parallels between the religious and human spheres.
In order to examine how the differences between the Manifestations of God
relates to the above discussed areas, another paragraph by Shoghi Effendi will
clarify this relationship:
Any variations in the splendor which each of
these Manifestations of the Light of God has shed upon the world should be
ascribed not to any inherent superiority involved in the essential character of
any one of them, but rather to the progressive capacity, the ever-increasing
spiritual receptiveness, which mankind, in its progress towards maturity, has
invariably manifested.[407]
In the beginning of this section, a similar quote by Bahá'u'lláh
was analyzed where he wrote that any apparent variation in the intensity of the
light between the Manifestations of God was attributed, not to the light
itself, but rather to the "varying receptivity of an ever-changing world."[408]
Here, however, Shoghi Effendi
attributes this variation to the "progressive capacity, the ever-increasing
spiritual receptiveness" of mankind, which also is portrayed as progressing
towards "maturity." In other contexts, this process of humanity's evolution is
frequently described, by both 'Abdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi, as a
development from infancy to manhood or maturity.[409] Concurrently, revelation
is sometimes
described in similar organic terms in that it, e.g., exists in an "embryonic
state" and is thus capable to develop into stages of maturity.[410] Again it is
possible to see the
emphasis on the concepts "capacity" and "receptivity." However, in
Bahá'u'lláh's statement, the degree of "receptivity" is only
described as varying, while Shoghi Effendi clearly defines it as being
progressive and "ever-increasing." Nevertheless, and as will be shown below,
the Bahá'í-authors do clearly point to that the variation of
revelation generally is in the progressive direction.
The differences of the Manifestations of God and concept of progress are
sometimes more explicitly and specifically elaborated upon than the quotes used
above. For example, 'Abdu'l-Bahá, using a more astrological oriented
solar-model, compares the Bábí-revelation with that of
Bahá'u'lláh as follows:
The Revelation of the Báb may be likened
to the sun, its station corresponding to the first sign of the Zodiac--the sign
Aries--which the sun enters at the vernal equinox. The station of
Bahá'u'lláh's Revelation, on the other hand, is represented by
the sign Leo, the sun's mid-summer and highest station. By this is meant that
this holy Dispensation is illumined with the light of the Sun of Truth shining
from its most exalted station, and in the plenitude of its resplendency, its
heat and glory.[411]
In this passage it is evident that 'Abdu'l-Bahá's comparison with
Bahá'u'lláh's revelation as "the sun's mid-summer and highest
station" and the Báb's revelation as the sun at the vernal equinox,
evidently implies that the former has progressed towards a more developed and
"exalted station." Similarly, in a letter written on his behalf, Shoghi Effendi
compares Islám with the former religions as follows:
Muhammadanism [Islám] is not only the
last of the world religions, but a fuller Revelation than any one preceding it.
The Qur'an is not only more authoritative than any previous religious gospel,
but it contains also much more; ordinances, teachings and precepts, which taken
together constitute a fuller Revelation of God's purpose and law to mankind
than Christianity, Judaism or any other previous Dispensation. This view is in
complete accord with the Bahá'í philosophy of progressive revelation, and
should be thoroughly accepted and taught by every loyal . . . Bahá'í.[412]
It is peculiar that Shoghi Effendi here refers to Islám as the "last of
the world religions," since this phrasing is quite contrary to the theme of
succession and continuity of revelation discussed above.[413] Even the term
"latest" would be
awkward, since the Bahá'í-authors usually refer to the
Bahá'í-religion, not Islám, as the latest in a series of
religions and further emphatically inculcates that no religion can claim to be
the final religion.[414] Still, the
interesting thing about the above quoted passage is that Shoghi Effendi
compares Islám with Christianity and states that the former is a "fuller
Revelation" than the latter and "any other previous Dispensation." This clearly
suggests a progressive concept of revelation, and one can also readily observe
this since Shoghi Effendi designates this concept as the "Bahá'í philosophy of
progressive revelation," which not only should be "thoroughly accepted . . . by
every loyal . . . Bahá'í," but also should be "taught." This statement
consequently suggests that the concept of progressive revelation has doctrinal
connotations and implications as well, which clearly implies that it should be
identified as one of the Bahá'í-religion's central doctrines.
In the above cited quote, two or more religions are compared with each other,
but elsewhere Shoghi Effendi writes that, in accordance with the "principle of
progressive revelation," every Manifestation of God must bring a "measure of
divine guidance ampler than any which a preceding and less receptive age could
have received or appreciated."[415] The
term "divine guidance" can be interpreted as meaning "revelation" and it is
evident that Shoghi Effendi indicates that the preceding ages were less
receptive, which logically means that the proceeding ages are more receptive,
and thus they will be capable to receive an "ampler" measure of revelation.[416]
In other contexts, Shoghi Effendi
writes about the concept of "progressive religion" and describes the religions
that have preceded the Bahá'í-religion as "different stages in
the eternal history and constant evolution of one religion, Divine and
indivisible, of which it itself forms but an integral part."[417] This phrase is
especially significant
since Bahá'u'lláh above stated that this is the "changeless Faith
of God, eternal in the past, eternal in the future."[418] Although both
Bahá'í-authors state that all revelations, in either the past or
in the future, are essentially identical, Bahá'u'lláh's statement
here emphasizes the non-changing and essential dimension of religion, while
Shoghi Effendi includes the more dynamic view of "stages" and "evolution."
In addition, although all the various religions may be seen as "one religion,"
Shoghi Effendi also states that the Bahá'í-religion is an
"integral part" of this process and in other contexts he says that it is but
"one link in the chain of continually progressive Revelations."[419] Here the
chain-model again suggests
both a distinct and separate character of each revelation (the exoteric and
horizontal axis), as well the underlining continuity which connects all the
revelations of the past and the future (the esoteric or vertical axis). The use
of the plural "progressive Revelations" also support the idea that each
revelation is progressive in its own right, and yet, all revelations are seen
as being part of a much larger scheme, which will be the topic in the next
section.
In order to summarize this section one can at this stage conclude that progress
occurs on two intimately and mutually interconnected dimensions:
1) The religious, or revelatory, dimension which is the level of the
Manifestations of God, the revelation, or the religion, which is intrinsically
progressive. Each religion progresses up to a certain point, and then starts to
decline. But the general theme of the successive and continuous religions is an
overall progressive and evolutionary tendency, and thus each new Manifestation
of God brings a greater measure of revelation (religion) to humanity than each
previous one. This variation in revelation is, however, not inherent in the
Manifestations of God, but is attributed to various worldly, or human factors,
and thus the various revelations must differ in their non-essential aspects.
This part of the revelation would therefore correspond to 2 a) below, in that
it is concerned with various societal and material transactions. However,
although the Manifestations do differ, they always reveal the non-changing and
essential aspect of the "Law of God." This part of revelation would correspond
to 2 b) below, in that deals with spiritual and human attributes and virtues.
2) The human, or worldly, dimension. In general, this level may also correspond
to revelation which is given in accordance with the "conditions" and "varying
requirements of the age" and the "spiritual capacity" of mankind.
a) human society (material civilization) has slowly, gradually and successively
evolved in that higher stages of unification has been accomplished: family,
tribe, city-states, and nations.
b) humanity's spiritual capacity and receptivity (spiritual civilization) has
slowly and gradually increased over time. Mankind is thus described as
spiritually developing through the sequential stages of growth: infancy,
childhood, youth, and maturity.
The above summarized dimensions are, as was seen from the various
Bahá'í-authors, intrinsically and reciprocally related, and
'Abdu'l-Bahá's mirror-model above illustrates this relationship, i.e.,
the more humanity develops and progress, both materially and spiritually, the
greater the measure of revelation. Yet, there are several passages in the
Bahá'í writings which would support the statement that religion,
or revelation, is the primary cause of progress and development.
'Abdu'l-Bahá even states that the divine teachings of religion has been
"the basis of all civilization and progress in the history of man" and that "it
is the source of illumination, the cause of development and the animating
impulse of all human advancement."[420]
However, if one would attribute the first dimension above to specific
revelation, in that it involves the Manifestations of God, the second dimension
could be said to be both indirectly under the influence of universal
revelation, and directly under the guidance of specific revelation.
Consequently, God, who is entitled the "Fountainhead of all Revelations"
(universal and specific), would therefore be seen as the ultimate cause of
progress in both dimensions. This conclusion lends further supports to the
hypothesis that progressive revelation is a central concept of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism.
D. The cyclical scheme
In the following two sections of progressive revelation, the issue of finality
in revelation, and the various concepts of cycles of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism shall be examined. The previous sections
constitute, in a way, a necessary framework for this discussion, which also
integrates many previously discussed key terms and concepts of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism, especially the concept of progressive
revelation.
As was stated in the beginning of this thesis, the
Bahá'í-religion has its origins within the Islámic context
and naturally, the Bahá'í-authors had to address such problematic
issues as the finality of revelation[421]
and the Qur'ánic concept of the "Seal of Prophets."[422] In the previous
discussions on the
rise and fall of a religion and the succession and continuity of revelation, it
was concluded that revelation occurred in a "seasonal," or cyclical fashion.
These concepts points to that revelation, although periodic, is a perpetual
phenomenon. In addition, the Bahá'í-authors not only regard the
whole of the Qur'án as "an absolutely authenticated Repository of the
Word of God,"[423] but also designate
Muhammed as the "Seal of the Prophets."[424] How is it possible to on the one hand
acknowledge that revelation is continuous, and yet, on the other hand, admit
that Muhammed is the "Seal of the Prophets"? This obviously appears to be a
plain contradiction and how the Bahá'í-authors attempts to
reconcile these apparently opposing positions shall be discussed below.
The Bahá'í-authors, especially Bahá'u'lláh, seem to
approach this issue in at least five major ways, whereas 'Abdu'l-Bahá
and Shoghi Effendi mainly utilize the fourth and fifth approaches. The first
three approaches are more vertical or esoteric in character whereas the last
two ways are predominantly horizontal and exoteric.
1. The finality of revelation
One approach is where Bahá'u'lláh, while discussing the theme of
progressive revelation, generally addresses the issue of finality of
revelation, or that God is incapable of raising up another Manifestation of
God. In the following passage Bahá'u'lláh draws upon the
Qur'án[425] and thus uses similar
arguments against the Muslims as Muhammed did with the Jews:
"'The hand of God,' say the Jews, 'is chained
up.' Chained up be their own hands; And for that which they have said, they
were accursed. Nay, outstretched are both His hands!"[Qu'rán 5:65] "The
hand of God is above their hands."[Qu'rán 48:11] . . . How can He be
conceived as powerless to raise up yet another Messenger after Moses? Behold
the absurdity of their saying; how far it hath strayed from the path of
knowledge and understanding! Observe how in this Day also, all these people
have occupied themselves with such foolish absurdities. For over a thousand
years they have been reciting this verse,[Qu'rán 5:65] and unwittingly
pronouncing their censure against the Jews, utterly unaware that they
themselves, openly and privily, are voicing the sentiments and belief of the
Jewish people! Thou art surely aware of their idle contention, that all
Revelation is ended, that the portals of Divine mercy are closed, that from the
day springs of eternal holiness no Sun shall rise again, that the Ocean of
everlasting bounty is forever stilled, and that out of the Tabernacle of
ancient glory the Messengers of God have ceased to be made manifest. . . .
These people have imagined that the flow of God's all-encompassing grace and
plenteous mercies, the cessation of which no mind can contemplate, has been
halted.[426]
From the context of this passage, Bahá'u'lláh compares the Jews'
denial of Muhammed with "all these people" who "in this Day" have been
"reciting this verse" for "over a thousand years." These statements apparently
refer to the Muslims and the Islámic dispensation, which at the time of
Bahá'u'lláh was over 1200 years old.[427] He then further implies
that although
the Muslims have been reciting this verse (Qu'rán 5:65) for all this
time, they are yet unaware that they are "voicing the sentiments and belief of
the Jewish people," and hence that they are repeating the Jews' denial. This
argument is both a theological argument, since Bahá'u'lláh
addresses the omnipotence and power of God, and an apologetic argument, since
he on the one hand agrees with the Qur'ánic statements and, on the other
hand, reinterprets and polemically utilizes them against the Muslims
themselves.
2. The "Seal of the Prophets"
A second approach is where Bahá'u'lláh directly addresses the
issue of the "Seal of the Prophets" by adopting statements which,
traditionally, may be directly assigned to Muhammed himself:
[. . .] how many are those who, through failure
to understand its meaning, have allowed the term "Seal of the Prophets" to
obscure their understanding, and deprive them of the grace of His manifold
bounties! Hath not Muhammad, Himself, declared: "I am all the Prophets?" Hath
He not said . . . : "I am Adam, Noah, Moses, and Jesus?" Why should Muhammad,
that immortal Beauty, Who hath said: "I am the first Adam" be incapable of
saying also: "I am the last Adam"? For even as He regarded Himself to be the
"First of the Prophets" that is Adam in like manner, the
"Seal of the Prophets" is also applicable unto that Divine Beauty. It is
admittedly obvious that being the "First of the Prophets," He likewise is their
"Seal." . . . They [the Manifestations of God] are at the same time the
Exponents of both the "first" and the "last." . . . Were a discerning eye to be
found, it will readily perceive that the exponents of the "first" and the
"last," of the "manifest" and the "hidden," of the "beginning" and the "seal"
are none other than these holy Beings, these Essences of Detachment, these
divine Souls.[428]
Here Bahá'u'lláh seem to address the issue of the "Seal of the
Prophets" by interpreting the "Seal" as the "last" Prophet of God. This way is
clearly encountered from an esoteric point of view where each Manifestation of
God, in his station of essential unity, is regarded as both the "First" or the
"Last." This approach was also seen in an earlier context above where
Bahá'u'lláh employed the solar-model to explain the concept of
the "return."[429] Thus, although
Muhammed is considered the "Seal of the Prophets," this title is not seen as
unique or exclusive solely to Muhammed, but that all the Manifestations of God
could claim this title.[430]
Consequently, Bahá'u'lláh states that this title may be
applicable even to the "First" of the Manifestations of God Adam.[431]
Once again, it is possible to observe
that Bahá'u'lláh is using apologetic arguments by referring to
the Islámic tradition and directing these towards a Muslim audience.
3. Unsealing the seal
A third approach seem to occur when Bahá'u'lláh either directly
identifies himself with the return of Imám Husayn, or when he indirectly
refers to the advent of his own revelation. Although Bahá'u'lláh
upholds Muhammed as the "Seal of the Prophets," in other contexts he alludes to
that "the seal" has been broken:
The seal of the choice Wine of His Revelation
hath, in this Day and in His Name, the Self-Sufficing, been broken.[432]
I have . . . with the hand of divine power, unsealed the choice wine of My
Revelation, and have wafted its holy, its hidden, musk-laden fragrance upon all
created things.[433]
[. . .] the greatness of this Day the Day whereon the Finger of
majesty and power hath opened the seal of the Wine of Reunion, and called all
who are in the heavens and all who are on the earth.[434]
In all three examples, Bahá'u'lláh associates the process of
"unsealing" with the metaphor of the "wine."[435] This is a recurrent metaphor in
Bahá'u'lláh's writings and which is further commonly affiliated
with concepts like revelation, reunion, and life.[436] Moreover, the use of sealing
and
unsealing may also point to the notion of authority or power.[437] Thus,
statements like the unsealing
has been made "in His Name," "with the hand of divine power," or by the "Finger
of majesty and power," further emphasize this notion of authority.
4. The Adamic or Prophetic Cycle and the Bahá'í Cycle
A fourth approach, which is by far the most predominant and elaborate in the
Bahá'í- writings, is when the Bahá'í-authors
address this issue from an exoteric point of view and where the horizontal axis
of cycles is predominant. It is therefore necessary to examine the
Bahá'í concept of cycles more closely.
The perhaps earliest reference to the mentioning of a "cycle" occurs in one of
Bahá'u'lláh's mystical works, the Four Valleys. In this piece he
briefly states: "The Cyclic Scheme, to them, is but to Him a stair."[438] It is
unclear what
Bahá'u'lláh exactly refers to here, but this mysterious line may
suggest two different points of view of the same phenomenon, namely one
cyclical and one that is gradually escalating. These two themes are, as was
previously seen, respectively highly relevant to the concepts of cycles and
progress. Earlier in this thesis, it was observed that a religion associated
with a Manifestation of God may sometimes be referred to as a "cycle," e.g.,
the "Mosaic cycle," the "Messianic cycle," and the "Mohammedan cycle." The
notion in this context may convey the meaning of a specific religious
dispensation or revelation, and in a previous section it was concluded that one
of the important differences between the dependent Prophets and the independent
Prophets (Manifestations of God) was that the latter are "founders of a new
cycle." Moreover, such a cycle is also associated with a "Book," and thus terms
like the "cycle of the Qur'án" may also occur.[439] However, the term
"cycle," as the next
paragraph by Bahá'u'lláh shows, appears also in many instances to
be synonymous with the concept of an "age"[440]:
[. . .] they Who are the Luminaries of truth and
the Mirrors reflecting the light of divine Unity, in whatever age and cycle
they are sent down from their invisible habitations of ancient glory unto this
world, to educate the souls of men and endue with grace all created things.[441]
Here one is reminded of the educational theme of the Manifestations of God. In
the previous sections it was also seen that the various revelations and
Manifestations of God were described as successive and continuous.
Bahá'u'lláh does in like manner refer to the ages as
"successive."[442] Furthermore, it was
stated that the solar-model was employed to describe not only the rise and fall
of a religion, but the succession and continuity of religions as well.
'Abdu'l-Bahá also applies this solar-model in connection with the
seasonal-model and says that "just as the solar cycle has its four seasons, the
cycle of the Sun of Reality has its distinct and successive periods."[443] The
Manifestation of God ("Sun of
Reality") is in other words seen as having its own cycle, or season. Hence, the
term "cycle" is on the one hand equated with a religion's rise and fall, and
yet, on the other hand, 'Abdu'l-Bahá also refers to this "cycle of the
seasons" as being "continuous."[444]
Consequently, the various religious cycles (seasons) are seen as both
successive and continuous.
In his Some Answered Questions, in a chapter entitled "The Universal Cycles,"
'Abdu'l-Bahá answers a question pertaining to the concepts of "cycles."
By beginning his exposition with an explanation of the nature and duration of
the astronomical cycles, he continues to say that:
Each of the Divine Manifestations has likewise a
cycle, and during the cycle His laws and commandments prevail and are
performed. When His cycle is completed by the appearance of a new
Manifestation, a new cycle begins. In this way cycles begin, end and are
renewed, until a universal cycle is completed in the world, when important
events and great occurrences will take place which entirely efface every trace
and every record of the past; then a new universal cycle begins in the world,
for this universe has no beginning . . . Briefly, we say a universal cycle in
the world of existence signifies a long duration of time, and innumerable and
incalculable periods and epochs. In such a cycle the Manifestations appear with
splendor in the realm of the visible until a great and supreme Manifestation
makes the world the center of His radiance. His appearance causes the world to
attain to maturity, and the extension of His cycle is very great. Afterward,
other Manifestations will arise under His shadow, Who according to the needs of
the time will renew certain commandments relating to material questions and
affairs, while remaining under His shadow. We are in the cycle which began with
Adam, and its supreme Manifestation is Bahá'u'lláh.[445]
This passage contains many themes which shall subsequently be developed in this
section. For example, one can readily see that each Manifestation of God is
attributed with a specific "cycle" and that this cyclical pattern is repeated
with a "new cycle," which suggests the successive and continuous pattern of
revelation. Further, 'Abdu'l-Bahá makes a reference to a "universal
cycle" which "signifies a long duration of time, and innumerable and
incalculable periods and epochs." Thus, such a cycle seem to include a great
number of "periods" and "epochs." Notice also the sentence where
'Abdu'l-Bahá says that "cycles begin, end and are renewed, until a
universal cycle is completed," which in turns indicates that various shorter
cycles occur within a longer universal cycle. Moreover, a "universal cycle" is,
above all, associated with a "supreme Manifestation" whose "cycle is very
great," who "causes the world to attain to maturity," and that the subsequent
Manifestation of God will be "under his shadow."
In the final sentence above, 'Abdu'l-Bahá identifies the present cycle
with the "cycle which began with Adam" and that Bahá'u'lláh is
its "supreme Manifestation." Previously it was also witnessed that
Bahá'u'lláh referred to the "chain of successive Revelations that
hath linked the Manifestations of Adam with that of the Báb."[446]
Similarly, Abdu'l-Bahá stated
that "From the days of Adam until today, the religions of God have been made
manifest, one following the other."[447]
The notion of a cycle which began with Adam is often referred to as the "Adamic
cycle," the "Prophetic cycle," or the "Prophetic Era." However, the term
"Prophetic cycle" sometimes also occurs in the plural and refers to the various
successive cycles of the Manifestations of God.[448]
It is now necessary to proceed with the analysis of a fourth approach to the
issues of finality in revelation and the "Seal of the Prophets," and discern
how these two are connected with the cyclical scheme. In the following passage
it is possible to see how the term "Seal of the Prophets" is related to the
concept of the "Prophetic Cycle":
It is evident that every age in which a
Manifestation of God hath lived is divinely ordained, and may, in a sense, be
characterized as God's appointed Day. This Day, however, is unique, and is to
be distinguished from those that have preceded it. The designation "Seal of the
Prophets" fully revealeth its high station. The Prophetic Cycle hath, verily,
ended. The Eternal Truth is now come. He hath lifted up the Ensign of Power,
and is now shedding upon the world the unclouded splendor of His Revelation.[449]
Here Bahá'u'lláh states that "every age" can be designated as
"God's appointed Day," but he continues to say that "This Day"
(Bahá'u'lláh's "Day") is unique and "distinguished from those
that have preceded it," i.e., the preceding ages or dispensations. Then he
simultaneously proclaims that the title "Seal of the Prophets" is highly
significant, since it alludes to a "high station." Moreover,
Bahá'u'lláh announces that "The Prophetic Cycle" has terminated.
In like manner, and referring to his own revelation, Bahá'u'lláh
also declares that "In this most mighty Revelation all the Dispensations of the
past have attained their highest and final consummation."[450] Finally, in his last
work, The Epistle
to the Son of the Wolf, Bahá'u'lláh also relates the title of the
"Seal of the Prophets" with a Qur'ánic and prophetic verse which
ultimately alludes to the "Day of Judgment"[451]:
On this day the blessed words "But He is the
Apostle of God, and the Seal of the Prophets" have found their consummation in
the verse "The day when mankind shall stand before the Lord of the worlds."[452]
This paragraph points to the intimate relationship between the epithet of the
"Seal of the Prophets" and the eschatological and apocalyptical themes. The
intimacy between the Adamic Cycle, the Prophetic Cycle, and the "Seal of the
Prophets" can furthermore be seen in a passage of the
Kitáb-i-Íqán where Bahá'u'lláh refer to "all
the prophets, from Adam even to Muhammad, the 'seal'."[453] Consequently, from
the above cited
passages, it is evident that although Bahá'u'lláh admits that
Muhammed appropriately can be designated as the "Seal of the Prophets," he does
not acknowledge the interpretation that the continuous succession of revelation
is ended.
Concomitantly, Shoghi Effendi, on the one hand, says that the series of
successive revelations was "starting with Adam and concluded by the Revelation
of the Seal of the Prophets,"[454] and
yet, on the other hand, he also states that the advent of the Báb "at
once signalized the termination of the 'Prophetic Cycle' and the inception of
the 'Cycle of Fulfillment'."[455] Earlier
it was seen that Shoghi Effendi, while referring to the successive series of
progressive revelations, also says that this series was "beginning with Adam
and ending with the Báb."[456]
These statements may seem somewhat ambiguous, with respect to the ending of the
Adamic or Prophetic Cycle, but in another context he says that:
[. . .] the rise of the Orb of Bahá'u'lláh's
most sublime Revelation marking the consummation of the six thousand year cycle
ushered in by Adam, glorified by all past prophets and sealed with the blood of
the Author of the Babi Dispensation.[457]
This paragraph clarifies the above indefinite and inconclusive lines in that
Shoghi Effendi now indicates that the martyrdom of the Báb ("the blood
of the Author of the Babi Dispensation") has sealed the Adamic Cycle. From the
above statements by the Bahá'í-authors, it has been shown that it
is only Muhammed who designated the "Seal of the Prophets" whereas the
Báb never is associated with this title. Still, the Báb, rather
than Muhammed, appears to be intimately connected with the ending of the Adamic
or Prophetic Cycle. Thus, it can be understood that Muhammed is regarded as the
last, or final, Manifestation of God within the Adamic or Prophetic cycle,
whereas the Báb is seen as concluding, or sealing, this Cycle, while
simultaneously inaugurating a new Universal Cycle the
Bahá'í Cycle.[458] The
station of the Báb may in this sense be viewed as being a pivotal
transition-point between two major cycles.
Above one could observe that Bahá'u'lláh referred to the term
"Prophetic Cycle," but he never uses the term "Adamic Cycle". This term appears
to be utilized only by 'Abdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi. Moreover, it is
only the latter author who directly specifies that its duration of
approximately 6000 years.[459] This
figure, however, is not be taken at face value as a historical starting-point
of revelation, since Shoghi Effendi also states that the Adamic Cycle may be
"stretching back as far as the first dawnings of the world's recorded religious
history."[460] Moreover, in his answer to
a question posed to him concerning the "Prophets that have preceded Adam,"
Bahá'u'lláh answers:
Know thou that the absence of any reference to
them is no proof that they did not actually exist. That no records concerning
them are now available, should be attributed to their extreme remoteness, as
well as to the vast changes which the earth hath undergone since their
time.[461]
Bahá'u'lláh is obviously not arguing against the question and
stating that Adam was the first Manifestation of God, but on the contrary, he
seems to indirectly admit to the existence of Manifestations of God prior to
Adam. Furthermore, it was previously seen that 'Abdu'l-Bahá stated that
there have been Manifestations of God "One thousand years ago, two hundred
thousand years ago, one million years ago,"[462] and in this context of the cyclical
scheme he states that:
[. . .] there where many universal cycles
preceding this one in which we are living. They were consummated, completed and
their traces obliterated. The divine and creative purpose in them was the
evolution of spiritual man, just as in this cycle. The circle of existence is
the same; it returns. The tree of life has ever borne the same heavenly
fruit.[463]
From the above stated excerpts, it is evident that universal cycles are not
unique or exclusive phenomena, although they revolve at very extensive
intervals of time. One can also notice in the passage above that the purpose of
these cycles is the "evolution of spiritual man," which once again testifies to
the progressive concept. Moreover, one may discern the organic analogy of these
cycles with the metaphor of the "tree of life"[464] which periodically produces the
"same
heavenly fruit."
In an earlier passage in this section, 'Abdu'l-Bahá stated that "We are
in the cycle which began with Adam," and yet, in the immediate excerpt he
indirectly states that "we are living" in a Universal Cycle.[465] This seems
contradictory, but it is
possible that although the two cycles are seen as separate, they may also be
seen as ultimately continuous. Yet, there are numerous texts which explicitly
states that "we are living" in a Universal Cycle. For example, in an antecedent
passage, 'Abdu'l-Bahá designated Bahá'u'lláh as the "supreme
Manifestation" of this Universal Cycle, and in addition he labels this
Universal Cycle as the "Cycle of Glory," the "cycle of the Blessed Beauty," the
"cycle of Bahá'u'lláh," the "Bahá'í Cycle."[466] In
other contexts he says that:
This is the day of Bahá'u'lláh,
the age of the Blessed Perfection, the cycle of the Greatest Name.[467]
[. . .] this era is the era of Bahá'u'lláh, and this age is
distinguished above all other ages.[468]
[ . . . ] this period is the period of the Blessed Perfection, and this cycle
is distinguished from all other cycles and epochs.[469]
Earlier Bahá'u'lláh stated that "The Prophetic Cycle hath,
verily, ended," and from the lines above, one can see that 'Abdu'l-Bahá
uses the terms "cycle," "day," "age," "era" or "period" of
Bahá'u'lláh rather synonymously. Moreover, he says that "this age
is distinguished above all other ages" or "cycles or epochs." Similarly, this
theme of synonyms can also be found in another context where he says: "A year
is the expression of a cycle (of the sun); but now is the beginning of a cycle
of Reality, a New Cycle, a New Age, a New Century, a New Time and a New
Year."[470] In contrast with the Adamic
Cycle, which is suppose to have been approximately 6000 years,
'Abdu'l-Bahá also states that the "magnitude of the Bahá'í cycle . . .
must extend over a period of at least five hundred thousand years."[471] The
Bahá'í cycle is,
consequently, seen as approximately a hundred times longer than the Prophetic
cycle (See Appendix II).
Concomitantly, Shoghi Effendi contrast these "two universal prophetic cycles"
with each other and states that the "Adamic Cycle" may be "stretching back as
far as the first dawnings of the world's recorded religious history" and that
the "Bahá'í Cycle" is "destined to propel itself across the unborn reaches of
time for a period of no less than five thousand centuries."[472] The terms "two
universal prophetic
cycles" may perhaps be confusing here, since a distinction was made earlier
between the Adamic or Prophetic Cycle and the Universal Cycle, and here Shoghi
Effendi appears to treat them as being more or less equal. However, in other
contexts he states that the "Bahá'í Revelation" is the "culmination of a
prophetic cycle," and that Bahá'u'lláh is the Originator of a new
'Universal Cycle'."[473]
It was also previously seen that Shoghi Effendi says: "The Faith of
Bahá'u'lláh should indeed be regarded . . . as the culmination of
a cycle, the final stage in a series of successive, of preliminary and
Progressive Revelations."[474] The phrase
"final stage" may be perplexing, but elsewhere Shoghi Effendi says that "Divine
Revelation is orderly, continuous and progressive and not spasmodic or
final."[475] Thus, in the first context,
directly addressing the Bahá'í-religion, he is referring to a the
cyclical theme, whereas in the second context, addressing the theme of "Divine
Revelation," he is maintaining that revelation is continuous and successive and
not final.[476] It is also significant
that Shoghi Effendi above refers to the previous revelations as "preliminary,"
which is suggestive of a rather preparatory status for the Universal Cycle.
5. The Bahá'í Dispensation and the future Manifestations of God
A fifth approach which addresses the issues of finality of revelation and the
"Seal of the Prophets" is where the Bahá'í authors point at
either the "Bahá'í Dispensation," or the future Manifestations of
God, which will subsequently appear. In just a few passages in his writings
Bahá'u'lláh hints at this next Manifestation of God:
[. . . ] Him Who will be sent down unto you
after Me . . . By those words which I have revealed, Myself is not intended,
but rather He Who will come after Me.[477]
Here Bahá'u'lláh clearly indicates that he does not claim to be
the last, or final, Manifestation of God, but rather upholds that the
succession of revelation continues. However, he also emphatically states that
this event will not occur until the passing of at least one thousand years.[478]
'Abdu'l-Bahá comments upon this
claim and says that:
This is not a reference to the Universal
Manifestation, for it is clearly set forth in the Holy Writings that centuries,
nay thousands of years, must pass on to completion, before a Manifestation like
unto this Manifestation shall appear again. It is possible, however, that after
the completion of a full thousand years, certain Holy Beings will be empowered
to deliver a Revelation: this, however, will not be through a Universal
Manifestation.[479]
This passage is in congruence with the passage above, where 'Abdu'l-Bahá
elaborated upon the theme of "universal cycles," and here one can see that the
Universal Manifestation is distinguished from the ordinary Manifestation of
God. Yet, such a Manifestation of God is capable and "empowered to deliver a
Revelation." In addition, Shoghi Effendi, while contrasting the two cycles with
each other, states that the Bahá'í revelation may be:
[ . . . ] hailed as the promise and crowning
glory of past ages and centuries, as the consummation of all the Dispensations
within the Adamic Cycle, inaugurating an era of at least a thousand years'
duration, and a cycle destined to last no less than five thousand centuries,
signalizing the end of the Prophetic Era and the beginning of the Era of
Fulfillment.[480]
Evidently the Bahá'í revelation is seen as the "consummation of
all the Dispensations within the Adamic Cycle" and that this event, on the one
hand, signalizes the "end of the Prophetic Era," it is, on the other hand, the
"beginning of the Era of Fulfillment." Earlier it was observed that the
duration of the Adamic Cycle, or the Prophetic Era, was estimated as 6000 years
and here this cycle is contrasted with the Bahá'í Cycle (the Era
of Fulfillment) which is suppose to continue for at least 500 000 years.[481] But,
in the last paragraph by Shoghi
Effendi, one may also notify another numerical value of "a thousands years,"
and elsewhere he refers to this concept as the "millennium."[482] Above it was
also noticed that
Bahá'u'lláh alluded to this number in the renewal of the "City of
God," and that the appearance of a new Manifestation of God will occur after a
thousand years.[483]
In answering the relationship between the Bahá'í Cycle and the
"era of at least a thousand years," Shoghi Effendi states the following:
Concerning your question relative to the
duration of the Bahá'í Dispensation. There is no contradiction between
Bahá'u'lláh's statement in the Iqan about the renewal of the City of God once
every thousand years, and . . . that the Bahá'í cycle will extend over a period
of at least 500,000 years. The apparent contradiction is due to the confusion
of the terms cycle and dispensation. For while the Dispensation of Bahá'u'lláh
will last for at least one thousand years, His Cycle will extend still farther,
to at least 500,000 years. The Bahá'í cycle is, indeed, incomparable in its
greatness. It includes not only the Prophets that will appear after
Bahá'u'lláh, but all those who have preceded Him ever since Adam. These should,
indeed, be viewed as constituting but preliminary stages leading gradually to
the appearance of this supreme Manifestation of God.[484]
Here Shoghi Effendi clearly makes a distinction between the
"Bahá'í Dispensation" on the one hand, which is suppose to endure
a thousand years, and the "Bahá'í cycle" which is suppose to
continue for at least 500 000 years, on the other. Consequently, the
Bahá'í Dispensation is considerably shorter and can thus be
considered embodied within the Bahá'í Cycle as a "sub-cycle."
Furthermore, one can observe that Prophets "will appear after Bahá'u'lláh," and
elsewhere Shoghi Effendi refers to "successive Dispensations in the Five
Thousand Century Bahá'í Cycle."[485]
Consequently, these "successive Dispensations" can be seen as sub-cycles within
the Bahá'í Cycle as well.
In conclusion of the above mentioned approaches to the issues of finality of
revelation and the "Seal of the Prophets," it should now be understood that all
three Bahá'í-authors maintain that the Adamic, or Prophetic,
Cycle has ended and that a new Universal Cycle the
Bahá'í Cycle has been inaugurated. Consequently, from
the latter two exoteric perspectives, the Bahá'í-authors defend
that Muhammed is the "Seal of the Prophets," but interpret this title as being
applicable only within the Prophetic Cycle, and not as the last, or final,
Manifestation of God in the continuos succession of revelation. Moreover, it
was stated that the Báb is designated as "sealing" the Prophetic Cycle,
while at the same time ushering in the new Universal Cycle the
Bahá'í Cycle.
This section has given support to the second hypothesis that issues like the
"Seal of the Prophets" and finality of revelation are, according to the
Bahá'í-authors, ultimately a matter of viewpoint and
interpretation (esoteric/exoteric). Thus, the Bahá'í-authors
upholds the that the "Seal of the Prophets" and the finality of revelation are
valid from one specific point of view, but they prefer to interpret these
issues within the concept of progressive revelation, especially within the
cyclical scheme.
E. The Bahá'í Cycle and the concept of progress
In the preceding section, it was observed that all three
Bahá'í-authors claim that the two major cycles the
Bahá'í Cycle and Prophetic Cycle are distinguished and
significantly different from each other. In this section the objective is not
so much contrast the two major cycles, but rather to focus on the concept of
progress in the contexts of the Bahá'í Cycle which includes the
Bahá'í Dispensation.
Previously, while discussing the differences between the Manifestations of God
and the concept of progress, one could observe a tendency of progress in two
major dimensions, which were intimately and mutually interrelated: the
religious, or revelatory, dimension and the human, or worldly, dimension. In
the preceding section, it was seen that the Prophetic Cycle was described as
"preliminary" and that the Bahá'í Cycle was depicted as a
"culmination." Furthermore, when the two major cycles were compared to each
other, the comparison did not seem to indicate a gradual change, or
development, but rather a radical, or an exponential, phase-transition. There
are a few sections in the writings of Bahá'u'lláh where he not
only addresses the above stated cyclical scheme, but where he, in this context,
also indicates a more radical theme to the concept of progressive revelation:
"Knowledge is twenty and seven letters. All that
the Prophets have revealed are two letters thereof. No man thus far hath known
more than these two letters. But when the Qá'im shall arise, He will
cause the remaining twenty and five letters to be made manifest." Consider: He
hath declared knowledge to consist of twenty and seven letters, and regarded
all the prophets, from Adam even to Muhammad, the 'seal', as expounders of only
two letters thereof. He also saith that the Qá'im will reveal all the
remaining twenty and five letters. Behold from this utterance how great and
lofty is His station! His rank excelleth that of all the prophets, and His
revelation transcendeth the comprehension and understanding of all their chosen
ones.[486]
Here Bahá'u'lláh refers to some sources in the Islamic
tradition.[487] The twenty-seven letters
alludes to the number of letters in the Arabic alphabet, and probably also
refers to some mystical numerology. However, the important thing to notice here
is the sentences which states that "All that the Prophets," in the Adamic or
Prophetic Cycle, "have revealed are two letters thereof," but that the
"Qá'im will reveal all the remaining twenty and five letters." This
features two basic themes; first, that revelation of the Prophetic Cycle is
regarded as incomplete (preliminary), and secondly, that the greater proportion
of revelation is yet to be disclosed (or culminate) when the Qá'im
arises. Further, this passage also puts the Qá'im[488] in a rather unique
position, or
"station," since "His rank excelleth that of all the prophets." It is, however,
not clear if this passage should be taken at face value, since it would be
quite contrary and inconsistent to what was stated above, since it would
logically imply that the future Manifestations of God would have nothing to
reveal. An alternative explanation would be that it is rather the relative
status of the different cycles which is compared here in that it designates the
Qá'im such a superior station that his revelation even excels the
revelation of all the other Manifestations of God combined. Another way to look
at this statement is to compare the relative duration of the two cycles where
the Prophetic Cycle is completely dwarfed by the Bahá'í Cycle
(See Appendix II).
In this context Bahá'u'lláh further writes about the increased
capacity for revelation and thus this passage may complement the one above in
that the former discusses the revelatory dimension whereas the latter
elucidates the human dimension:
The heights which, through the most gracious
favor of God, mortal man can attain in this Day are as yet unrevealed to his
sight. The world of being hath never had, nor doth it yet possess, the capacity
for such a revelation. The day, however, is approaching when the potentialities
of so great a favor will, by virtue of His behest, be manifested unto men.[489]
Here the human dimension of revelation is clearly observed and it appears that
the capacity for revelation will continue to increase. The second line
testifies to this, since it relates to both the past ("hath never had"), and to
the future ("nor doth it yet possess"). Consequently, the present capacity for
revelation is on the one hand greater "in this Day" (i.e., in the
Bahá'í Cycle) than in the past, and yet the "day . . . is
approaching" when a greater potential of the human capacity for revelation will
be disclosed.
Similarly, in comparing the two major cycles with each other,
'Abdu'l-Bahá refers to the Bahá'í Cycle as a "golden
cycle," that "this cycle is distinguished from all other cycles and epochs,"
and that "this illumined age" is the "age of the progress of the world of
humanity."[490] Furthermore, it was shown
in a preceding chapter that the measure of revelation was revealed in
accordance to human capacity, but with regard to the Bahá'í Cycle
'Abdu'l-Bahá states that:
Know thou that the distinguished Individual of
every age is endowed according to the perfections of His age. That Individual
who in past ages was set above His fellows was gifted according to the virtues
of His time. But in this age of splendours, this era of God, the preeminent
Personage, the luminous Orb, the Chosen Individual will shine out with such
perfections and such power as ultimately to dazzle the minds of every community
and group.[491]
'Abdu'l-Bahá does not say that the measure of revelation will be out of
proportion to human receptivity, but he does state that the Universal
Manifestation ("That Individual") will "dazzle the minds of every community and
group." This certainly suggests that the measure of revelation will be
dramatically intensified. In another passage he states this point more
succinctly:
In cycles gone by, each one of the
Manifestations of God hath had His own rank in the world of existence, and each
hath represented a stage in the development of humanity. But the Manifestation
of the Most Great Name . . . was an expression of the coming of age, the
maturing of man's inmost reality in this world of being.[492]
In this passage one is reminded of the intimacy and reciprocity between the
revelatory and human dimensions. Thus, one can discern that each Manifestation
of God would represent "a stage in the development of humanity," and that the
crucial difference between this cycle, or age, with the former, is that
humanity now is "coming of age." In another context 'Abdu'l-Bahá states
that the Bahá'í Cycle is a "cycle of maturity and reformation."[493]
It was also mentioned earlier that
'Abdu'l-Bahá distinguished between a "material" and a "spiritual," or
"divine civilization."[494] In the next
passage by 'Abdu'l-Bahá, it is shown how the various themes of cycles,
the coming of age of humanity, civilization, and the concept of progress
concur:
From the standpoints of both material and
spiritual civilization extraordinary progress and development will be
witnessed. In this present cycle there will be an evolution in civilization
unparalleled in the history of the world. The world of humanity has, therefore,
been in the stage of infancy; now it is approaching maturity. Just as the
individual human organism, having attained the period of maturity, reachest its
fullest degree of physical strength and ripened period there is witnessed an
unprecedented measure of development, likewise in the world of humanity in this
cycle of its completeness and consummation will realize an immeasurable upward
progress, and that power of accomplishment whereof each individual human
reality is the depository of God that outworking Universal Spirit
like the intellectual faculty, will reveal itself in infinite
degrees of perfection.[495]
In this excerpt the macro/microcosmos scheme is once again applied, since the
evolution of the "world of humanity" (macrososmos) resembles the "individual
human organism" (microcosmos). Further, humanity is described as entering a
phase of "completeness and consummation," and progress will take place on all
levels, individually as well as collectively. Another feature of this Universal
Cycle is establishment of the "unity of all mankind". This was impossible in
"cycles gone by," according to 'Abdu'l-Bahá, since continents "remained
widely divided."[496] Consequently, he
implies that this is possible in this age, due to the "material" progress of
mankind. In addition, although 'Abdu'l-Bahá evidently suggest that the
Bahá'í Cycle is a completely different cycle than the Prophetic
Cycle, he still says: "Whatsoever is latent in the innermost of this holy Cycle
shall gradually appear and be made manifest, for now is but the beginning of
its growth, and the dayspring of the revelation of its signs."[497] Thus, one may
recognize the same
gradual feature, which was observed in the inception of revelation in general,
also is valid for the Bahá'í Cycle.
In like manner, Shoghi Effendi, comparing Bahá'u'lláh with the
other Manifestations of God, says: "There are no Prophets, so far, in the same
category as Bahá'u'lláh, as He culminates a great cycle begun with Adam."[498]
Moreover, he states that the
Bahá'í Dispensation is a "Dispensation which posterity will
recognize as the most glorious and momentous in the greatest cycle in the
world's religious history," and that the Bahá'í Era is an "age which marks the
opening of the most glorious epoch in the greatest cycle which the spiritual
history of mankind has yet witnessed."[499] In discussing the intimate and mutual
interconnectedness between the revelatory and human dimensions, he further says
that "this present age" is an age which is "infinitely more advanced, more
receptive, and more insistent to receive an ampler measure of Divine Guidance
than has hitherto been vouchsafed to mankind."[500]
In the next passage one can also note that several of the previously discussed
topics of progressive revelation converge:
The embryonic Faith, maturing three years after
His [the Báb's] martyrdom, traversing the period of infancy in the
course of the Heroic Age of the Faith is now steadily progressing towards
maturity in the present Formative Age, destined to attain full stature in the
Golden Age of the Bahá'í Dispensation. Lastly the Holy Seed of infinite
preciousness, holding within itself incalculable potentialities representing
the culmination of the centuries-old process of the evolution of humanity
through the energies released by the series of progressive Revelations starting
with Adam and concluded by the Revelation of the Seal of the Prophets, marked
by the successive appearance of the branches, leaves, buds, blossoms . . .
whose radiance is now overspreading the surface of the globe during the present
Formative Age, whose full splendor is destined in the course of future
millenniums to suffuse the entire planet.[501]
First, one may notice that Shoghi Effendi employs a variety of organic
metaphors in describing the growth of the Bahá'í-religion. For
example, he depicts it as "embryonic" at its inception and that it traverses a
"period of infancy" and successive stages of growth, until it reaches the "full
stature in the Golden Age." This process is further paralleled with the
"centuries-old process of the evolution of humanity" which marks its
"culmination." In turn, one may see that these processes also are coupled with
the "series of progressive Revelations" and that this series also is identified
with the Prophetic Cycle. Finally, the organic metaphors, employed above, also
describe the succession of revelations as a gradual and consecutive unfoldment
of "branches," "leaves," "buds," and finally "blossoms." More importantly, this
sequential process is also delineated as progressive.
It is also possible to notice that Shoghi Effendi associate different "ages"
(Heroic and Formative) or "epochs"[502]
within the Bahá'í Dispensation, and that its "full splendor" will
only occur "in the course of future millenniums to suffuse the entire planet."
He also refers to these "ages" as the "Iron Age" and, as was seen above, "The
Golden Age" which is portrayed as an "age of fulfilment, fruition,
attainment."[503] Consequently, this
process is also implied to be gradual and progressive.
Previously, it was understood that Shoghi Effendi described this evolutionary
process of mankind as a process of "maturation," or as the "coming of age of
the entire human race." In a preceding section, he also depicted the evolution
of society as a sequential unification of families, tribes, city-states, and
nations. However, nation-building is not conceived as the chief goal of the
human society according to the Bahá'í-authors. On this theme
Shoghi Effendi says:
Unification of the whole of mankind is the
hall-mark of the stage which human society is now approaching. Unity of family,
of tribe, of city-state, and nation have been successively attempted and fully
established. World unity is the goal towards which a harassed humanity is
striving. Nation-building has come to an end. The anarchy inherent in state
sovereignty is moving towards a climax. A world, growing to maturity, must
abandon this fetish, recognize the oneness and wholeness of human
relationships, and establish once for all the machinery that can best incarnate
this fundamental principle of its life.[504]
In this excerpt nation building is rather seen as the final step towards "World
unity," or the establishment of a "new World Order."[505] It is also possible to
note that this
process is further associated with a "world growing to maturity." This new and
more mature stage of humanity is depicted as a higher order of complexity in
the social organization of mankind. These globalization-themes are more
elaborately described by Shoghi Effendi in the next passage:
The Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh, whose supreme
mission is none other but the achievement of this organic and spiritual unity
of the whole body of nations, should . . . be regarded as signalizing through
its advent the coming of age of the entire human race. It should be viewed not
merely as yet another spiritual revival in the ever-changing fortunes of
mankind, not only as a further stage in a chain of progressive Revelations, nor
even as the culmination of one of a series of recurrent prophetic cycles, but
rather as marking the last and highest stage in the stupendous evolution of
man's collective life on this planet. The emergence of a world community, the
consciousness of world citizenship, the founding of a world civilization and
culture--all of which must synchronize with the initial stages in the
unfoldment of the Golden Age of the Bahá'í Era--should, by their very nature,
be regarded, as far as this planetary life is concerned, as the furthermost
limits in the organization of human society, though man, as an individual,
will, nay must indeed as a result of such a consummation, continue indefinitely
to progress and develop.[506]
In the previous quotes by Shoghi Effendi, he said that the Bahá'í
Cycle was the "culmination of the centuries-old process of the evolution of
humanity," yet he now states that the establishment of a "world civilization
and culture" is the "last and highest stage in the stupendous evolution of
man's collective life on this planet." In addition, he says that this is the
"furthermost limits in the organisation of human society." Thus, when it comes
to the level of organization of the planetary life, there seem to be a certain
"ceiling-level," and yet, it is clear that the individual can "continue
indefinitely to progress and develop."
Earlier it was observed that the various Manifestations of God who, according
to 'Abdu'l-Bahá, were to arise after the Universal Manifestation, were
suppose to come "under His shadow."[507]
Shoghi Effendi similarly says that:
After Bahá'u'lláh many Prophets
will, no doubt appear, but they will be all under His shadow. Although they may
abrogate the laws of the Dispensation, in accordance with the needs and
requirements of the age in which they appear, they nevertheless draw their
spiritual force from this mighty Revelation. The Faith of
Bahá'u'lláh constitutes, indeed, the stage of maturity in the
development of mankind. His appearance has released such spiritual forces which
will continue to animate, for many long years to come, the world in its
development. Whatever progress may be achieved in later ages after
the unification of the whole human race is achieved will be but
improvements in the machinery of the world. For the machinery itself has
already been created by Bahá'u'lláh. The task of continually
improving and perfecting this machinery is one which later Prophets will be
called upon to achieve. They will move and work within the orbit of the
Bahá'í cycle.[508]
In this passage there are a couple of points to consider. First, one may
discern that the future revelations within the Bahá'í Cycle will
also be "in accordance with the needs and requirements of the age." Secondly,
the Bahá'í-religion is clearly associated with the "stage of
maturity in the development of mankind." Third, one may recognize that there
will also be progress "in the later ages," but that this improvement will be
"in the machinery of the world." Thus, although this "machinery" (World
Civilization) may be achieved, there will still be the need to improve upon
this world order, both on the individual and the collective levels, which
suggests that there will be room for progress. This, Shoghi Effendi implies, is
the task for the future Manifestations of God to achieve, but still, they are
regarded to "move and work within the orbit of the Bahá'í cycle."
From the above cited passages it was possible to observe that
Bahá'u'lláh, and the Bahá'í Cycle, clearly are set
apart from both; the previous Manifestations of God and the Prophetic Cycle,
and the future Manifestations of God who will appear within the
Bahá'í Cycle. Thus, Shoghi Effendi exclaims that
"Bahá'u'lláh is the greatest Manifestation to yet appear" and
that the future Manifestations of God, within the Bahá'í Cycle,
will be "under His shadow." Nevertheless, the Bahá'í-authors also
clearly maintain, from an esoteric point of view (the station of essential
unity), that "No distinction can be made amongst the Prophets in the sense that
They all proceed from One Source, and are of One Essence." Their differences
are rather seen from an exoteric point of view (station of distinction) that
"Their [the Manifestations of God] stations and functions in this world are
different."[509]
In order to conclude the sections in the chapter on progressive revelation a
final passage by Shoghi Effendi will suffice. This compact passage has
previously has been cited in part, and it used here since it not only
succinctly summarizes the concept of progressive revelation but, more
importantly, contextualizes it with many of the various key terms and concepts
surveyed and analyzed above:
The Revelation entrusted by the Almighty
Ordainer to Bahá'u'lláh . . . has been endowed with such potentialities as are
commensurate with the maturity of the human race--the crowning and most
momentous stage in its evolution from infancy to manhood. The successive
Founders of all past Religions Who, from time immemorial, have shed, with
ever-increasing intensity, the splendor of one common Revelation at the various
stages which have marked the advance of mankind towards maturity may thus, in a
sense, be regarded as preliminary Manifestations, anticipating and paving the
way for the advent of that Day of Days when the whole earth will have
fructified and the tree of humanity will have yielded its destined fruit.
Incontrovertible as is this truth, its challenging character should never be
allowed to obscure the purpose, or distort the principle, underlying the
utterances of Bahá'u'lláh--utterances that have established for all time the
absolute oneness of all the Prophets, Himself included, whether belonging to
the past or to the future. Though the mission of the Prophets preceding
Bahá'u'lláh may be viewed in that light, though the measure of Divine
Revelation with which each has been entrusted must, as a result of this process
of evolution, necessarily differ, their common origin, their essential unity,
their identity of purpose, should at no time and under no circumstances be
misapprehended or denied. That all the Messengers of God should be regarded as
"abiding in the same Tabernacle, soaring in the same Heaven, seated upon the
same Throne, uttering the same Speech, and proclaiming the same Faith" must,
however much we may extol the measure of Divine Revelation vouchsafed to
mankind at this crowning stage of its evolution, remain the unalterable
foundation and central tenet of Bahá'í belief. Any variations in the splendor
which each of these Manifestations of the Light of God has shed upon the world
should be ascribed not to any inherent superiority involved in the essential
character of any one of them, but rather to the progressive capacity, the
ever-increasing spiritual receptiveness, which mankind, in its progress towards
maturity, has invariably manifested.[510]
Below some key terms and concepts of this lengthy passage will be highlighted
and enumerated, but in an order which is adopted to the overall structural
analysis of this thesis:
- The "crowning and most momentous stage in its evolution
from infancy to manhood." This point delineates human evolution and progress.
This evolutionary and progressive theme was seen in the chapter on
Bahá'í-cosmology.
- The "absolute oneness of all the Prophets." Here the esoteric
dimension, or the station of essential unity is emphasized.
- The "successive Founders of all past Religions." This refers to the
exoteric dimension, which emphasizes the succession and continuity of
revelation.
- The "measure of Divine Revelation with which each has been entrusted
must, as a result of this process of evolution, necessarily differ." This also
refers to the exoteric dimension and further implies that the measure of
revelation differs in accord with human or worldly dimensions.
- The "ever-increasing intensity, the splendor of one common
Revelation at the various stages." This refers to the revelatory or religious
dimension, and here both the esoteric dimension and the progressive character
of revelation (exoteric dimension) are stated.
- The "progressive capacity, the ever-increasing spiritual
receptiveness." This refers to the human dimension and is a corollary to point
5) in that these two dimensions are intimately and mutually interrelated.
- The "preliminary Manifestations, anticipating and paving the way for
the advent of that Day of Days." This refers to the Prophetic Cycle and its
preparation for the Bahá'í Cycle.
- The Revelation of "Bahá'u'lláh" is "commensurate with the maturity
of the human race." This point can be seen as an extension of the previous
points, especially points 5) and 6).
- "Any variations in the splendor which each of these Manifestations
of the Light of God has shed upon the world should be ascribed not to any
inherent superiority involved in the essential character of any one of them."
This last point is extremely significant since, although it has repeatedly
seen that Bahá'u'lláh has been heralded as extraordinary, Shoghi
Effendi here recaptures point 2) which emphasize the esoteric dimension and
the essential unity of the Manifestations of God and the various religions.
Thus, from this point of view, Bahá'u'lláh is not different from
the other Manifestations of God. Consequently, the difference in the outpour
of revelation is rather attributed to point 6), which, in turn, is ultimately
derived from point 1).
Together, these points consider various key terms, metaphors, concepts,
structures, and dimensions of Bahá'í-apocalypticism, but
especially in their relation to the concept of progressive revelation. Since
one of the objectives in this thesis was to both directly, and indirectly, show
that this concept was a central principle of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism, one can in the above passage notice that
Shoghi Effendi states: 1) that "all the Messengers of God should be regarded
as" essentially one (esoteric dimension), and 2) that the "measure of Divine
Revelation vouchsafed to mankind at this crowning stage of its evolution"
differs (exoteric dimension). Consequently, these two dimensions
(esoteric/exoteric) are two crucial perspectives to the analysis of the concept
of progressive revelation, and taken together they "remain," according to
Shoghi Effendi, "the unalterable foundation and central tenet of Bahá'í
belief."
This chapter has presented both direct and indirect evidence to support the
third hypothesis that progressive revelation is a central concept, principle,
or theme, of the Bahá'í-religion and that it consists both of an
esoteric (texts of identification) and an exoteric dimension (texts of
elaboration). It has further given support to the fourth hypothesis that
progressive revelation is an evolutionary concept of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism and which interprets various revelations
(religions) as essentially interconnected, cyclical, and progressive.
Notes:
[280] Momen, W. (1991). p. 186; Stockman, R. (1993). p. 1, italics and
clarification
added
[281] PDC, p. v, italics added
[282] WOB, pp. 114-115, italics added, pp. 57-5
[283] WOB, p.103, italics added, p. 163; GPB, p. 10
[284] PDC, pp. 107-108, clarification and italics added
[285] See "The succession and continuity of religions
[286] GPB, p. 223; WOB, p. 102, 143; UD, p. 432; MA, p.
[287] GWB, p. 75; which is translated by Shoghi Effend
[288] Personal communication with Cole, J. (1995
[289] WOB, p. 59, italics added; see also p. 11
[290] PUP, p. 10
[291] PUP, p. 378, p. 14
[292] GWB, pp. 74-75, italics added
[293] Cf. the Qur'án
[294] Bahá'u'lláh qtd in WOB, p. 87, italics added
[295] POB, p. 87; KA, p. 2
[296] KI, pp. 152-154, italics added. 'Abdu'l-Bahá is recorded to have said
"[T]he Bab states, 'I am the return of all the Prophets.'" PUP, p. 16
[297] See LG, p. 47
[298] GWB, pp. 88-89, italics and clarification added, pp. 101-10
[299] Bahá'u'lláh may have included Joseph John the Baptist, and
Imám Huseyn in that he identifies himself with how these religious
personages were treated. The latter two were martyred and the former was
ill-treated by his brothers, i.e. thrown into a hole (cf.
Bahá'u'lláh's imprisonment into the Siyáh Chál) and
subsequently later sold as a slave to Egypt. See Genesis Ch. 37:24-2
[300] GWB, pp. 101-102, italics added
[301] Buck, C. (1986
[302] GWB, pp. 244-245; p. 147, pp. 292-29
[303] GPB, p. 9
[304] Bahá'u'lláh qtd in WOB, pp. 104-105, italics added; POB, p.
2
[305] POB, p. 29
[306] See Prophetology and "The cyclical scheme.
[307] GWB, p. 50, italics and clarification added; KI, 153-15
[308] GWB, p. 7
[309] GWB, p 59-6
[310] KI, pp. 20-2
[311] PUP, p. 15
[312] Shoghi Effendi qtd. in LG, p. 47
[313] SAB, p. 18
[314] See e.g., Matt. 17:1-1
[315] SAQ, p. 134, italics added
[316] SAB, p. 183; BWF, p. 371
[317] See Appendix
[318] GWB, pp. 88-89; italics added
[319] WB, pp. 201-202; KI, pp. 41-42; pp. 62-63; PUP, pp. 179-18
[320] WB, p. 7
[321] See Specific Revelation
[322] SAQ, pp. 74-7
[323] GWB, p. 27, p. 8
[324] SV, pp. 50-5
[325] PUP, p. 10, italics added
[326] See e.g., KI, pp. 42-43; GWB, p. 70, p. 136, p. 172; PUP, p. 220, p. 45
[327] PUP, p. 74, p. 192. For a greater analysis of Bahá'í-
symbolism
see May, D. (1989
[328] PUP, pp. 54-55, italics added
[329] See GWB, p. 27, p. 8
[330] SAQ, pp. 74-7
[331] SAQ, pp. 74-76, italics added
[332] See e.g., PUP, pp. 287, p. 46
[333] KI, pp. 41-42, pp. 62-6
[334] The wordings used in this scheme is mostly verbatim except a few grammatical
editions; see e.g., KI, pp. 41-42, pp. 62-63; GWB, p. 27, p. 84; SAQ pp. 74-76;
PUP, p. 10, pp. 54-5
[335] See "The cyclical scheme.
[336] GWB, p. 69, italics added
[337] SAQ, p. 5
[338] PUP, pp. 179-18
[339] PUP, p. 10, pp. 363-364, p. 407, p. 41
[340] Confucius is not Manifestation of God according to Shoghi Effendi since he
says that "Confucius was not a Prophet. It is quite correct to say he is the
founder of a moral system and a great reformer." LGTANZ, p. 41
[341] SAQ, pp. 165-166; italics added; see also TA, pp. 469-470
[342] SAQ, p. 16
[343] SAQ, p. 166; PUP, p. 6
[344] PUP, pp. 363-364; SWA, pp. 252-253
[345] PUP, pp. 363-364, italics added, p. 161
[346] TB, pp. 129-130; WB, pp. 201-202, p. 233
[347] KI, p. 13, p. 256; GWB, pp. 39-40, pp. 118-119, pp. 137-138; WOB, pp.
32-33;
GWB, p. 216
[348] GWB, p. 200
[349] PUP, p.161, p. 179
[350] PUP, pp. 179-180, italics added
[351] See also PT, p. 122
[352] Cf. KI, p. 225
[353] PUP, p. 161, pp. 39-40 pp. 221-222, pp. 337-339
[354] PUP, p. 161
[355] PUP, pp. 378-379
[356] WOB, pp. 155-156; PDC, pp. 70, pp. 114-116
[357] WOB, p. 186, italics added, p. 187
[358] CF, p. 81
[359] SAQ, pp. 165-166; PUP, p. 339
[360] SAQ, pp. 165-166
[361] GWB, pp. 73-74, clarification and italics added
[362] GWB, p. 282, italics added
[363] KA, p. 85
[364] SV, pp. 50-51
[365] Bahá'u'lláh qtd. in WOB, p. 116
[366] GWB, pp. 74-75, italics added
[367] See "Differences between the Manifestations of God and the Concept of
Progress.
[368] KI, pp. 7-18; clarification and italics added
[369] KI, pp. 199-200, italics added
[370] The Kitáb-i-Íqán was written c. 1862 and
Bahá'u'lláh declared himself to be "Him Whom God will make
manifest" in the year 1863
[371] Which "Book" Bahá'u'lláh is referring to is unclear since, at
the time of the Kitáb-i-Íqán (c. 1862), his holiest book,
the Kitáb-i-Aqdas (c. 1873) was revealed about twenty years later. It is
possible that he is referring to his current writings
[372] PUP, p. 271
[373] BWF, p. 259, italics added
[374] SAQ, pp. 74-76
[375] PUP, pp. 126-127, italics added
[376] PUP, p.151
[377] PUP, p. 256
[378] PUP, pp. 313-314
[379] PUP, pp. 313-314, italics added
[380] SWA, pp. 51-52, italics added
[381] PDC, p. 108, italics added
[382] PDC, p. 118; WOB, p. 166; GPB, p. 223; WOB, p. 116, p. 197
[383] KI, pp. 12-18
[384] PUP, p. 339, italics added
[385] PUP, pp. 197-198
[386] KI, p. 179
[387] KI, pp. 153-154, pp. 177-178
[388] KI, p. 177, italics added
[389] GWB, pp. 78-79, italics added; GWB, p. 48
[390] Bahá'u'lláh qtd in WOB, p. 60
[391] KI, p. 44, italics added
[392] See e.g., PUP, p. 144, pp. 378-379
[393] Bahá'u'lláh qtd in Holley, H. (1923). p. 249, italics added
[394] PUP, p. 168.
[395] SAQ, pp. 47-48, italics added
[396] SAQ, pp. 47-48, italics added
[397] SAQ, pp. 47-48, italics added
[398] PDC, p. v, italics added
[399] PUP, pp. 58-59, italics added
[400] SWA, p. 58, italics added
[401] PUP, p. 378, italics added, p. 10, p. 140
[402] See e.g., PUP, p. 379
[403] PUP, p. 140.
[404] SWA pp. 285-286
[405] For a more detailed explanation of Material and Divine Civilization see e.g.,
SDC, PUP, and SAQ p. 300
[406] WOB, p. 116, italics added
[407] WOB, p. 166, italics added
[408] GWB, pp. 78-79
[409] PUP, pp. 37-38, pp. 295-296, pp. 438-439; WOB, pp. 164-166, p. 202;
PDC, pp.
118-119, p. 217
[410] SAQ, p. 124; WOB, p. 23, p. 164; CF, p. 82; MBW, p. 75
[411] 'Abdu'l-Bahá qtd in GPB, pp. 99-100
[412] UD, p. 432, clarification and italics added
[413] See e.g., PDC, p. 108, and "The cyclical scheme.
[414] See e.g., WOB, p. 58, and "The cyclical scheme.
[415] WOB, p. 102
[416] See GPB, p. 100; WOB, p. 60
[417] UD, p. 451; WOB, pp. 114-115
[418] KA, p. 85. This statement probably alludes to the
Bahá'í-religion
[419] GPB, p. 100, italics added
[420] PUP, p. 361, italics added; TB, pp. 129-130
[421] For an more in-depth study of this issue see Fazel and Fananapazir
(1993).
[422] khatm al-nubuwwa in Arabic. See Qur'án 33:40. Muhammed was not
first to
claim the epiteth "Seal of the Prophets." It was used almost three centuries
earlier by the prophet Mani (216-277 CE). See Eliade, M. (1978). "MANI", p. 159
, "MANICHAEISM", p. 166
[423] ADJ, p. 49
[424] GWB, p. 57; KI, p. 41; ESW, p. 42; CF, p. 82
[425] Qu'rán 5:65, 48:11
[426] GWB, pp. 23-24, clarification and italics added
[427] i.e. c. 1860's AD which equals c. 1280 AH.
[428] KI, pp. 162-163, clarification added; see also KI, pp. 142-143, p. 163, p.
179; The theme "the first" and the last" can also be found in the Zoroastrian
religion e.g. "I known thee as the first and the last, As the Father of Good
Mind." Duchesne-Guillemin, J. (1952) p. 16; and in Islám "HE is the
First and the Last, and the Manifest and the Hidden, and HE has full knowledge
of all things." Qur'án 57: 4
[429] See The Identity of the Manifestations of God
[430] KI, p. 179
[431] For a more symbolic interpretation of "Adam" see SAQ, pp. 118-127; PUP,
pp.
219-220
[432] GWB, p. 12, italics added
[433] GWB, p. 328, italics added, p. 332
[434] GWB, p. 28, italics added.
[435] Cf. Qur'án 83:26
[436] GWB, p. 41, p. 121, pp. 340-341
[437] See Fazel and Fananapazir (1993). p. 27
[438] FV, p. 26, italics added. The footnotes in Four Valleys states that "The
Cyclical Scheme" refer to The Cyclic Theory of Abu-'Ali Sina
(Avicenna--980-1037) and that the poem is referred to The Mathnavi. The Cyclic
Theory of Avicenna is expressed by him in the quatrain:
"Every semblance, every shape that perisheth today
In the treasure-house of Time is safely stored away.
When the world revolveth to its former place,
Out of the Invisible He draweth forth its face." FV, p. 30
[439] SAQ, p. 164, p. 46; TA, pp. 469-470
[440] See also GWB, p. 62; WB, p. 250
[441] KI, p. 97; italics added
[442] GWB, p. 142
[443] PUP, p. 95, italics added
[444] PUP, pp. 126-127, italics added
[445] SAQ, pp. 160-161, italics added
[446] GWB, pp. 74-75, italics added
[447] SWA, pp. 51-52, italics added
[448] PUP, p. 393; GWB, p. 60; GPB, p. 100; SAQ, p. 48; GPB, pp. 55-56
[449] GWB, p. 60, italics added
[450] GWB, p. 340; WB, p. 494
[451] Qur'án 83:6-7
[452] ESW, p. 114
[453] KI, pp. 243-244, italics added
[454] CF, p. 82
[455] GPB, p. 57, italics added
[456] WOB, p. 103, italics added
[457] MBW, p. 40, italics added
[458] GPB, p. 401; WOB, p. 143
[459] GPB, pp. 55-56, p. 100
[460] GPB, pp. 55-56
[461] GWB, p. 172
[462] PUP, p. 463
[463] PUP, p. 220, italics added
[464] See also SAQ, p. 124
[465] See also PUP, p. 218
[466] SWA, p. 13, pp. 67-68; SAQ, p. 64; TA, p. 504
[467] PUP, p. 210, italics added
[468] SWA p. 71, italics added
[469] TA, p. 42, italics added
[470] TA, p. 38-39, italics added
[471] 'Abdu'l-Bahá qtd in WOB, p. 102; see Appendix II
[472] GPB, pp. 54-55; CF, p. 80, italics added
[473] WOB, p. 114; GPB, pp. 93-94
[474] WOB, p.103, italics added
[475] WOB, pp. 114-115, italics added
[476] See "The succession and continuity of revelation"; PDC, p. 108
[477] Bahá'u'lláh qtd in WOB, p. 117, italics added
[478] The time span at this moment of writing would rather be c. 900 years since
Bahá'u'lláh passed away about a hundred years ago (1892). See WB,
p. 539
[479] SWA pp. 67-68
[480] GPB, p. 100, italics added
[481] See Appendix II
[482] GPB, pp. 93-94
[483] See "The succession and continuity of religions.
[484] DG, pp. 7-8
[485] MBW, pp. 59-60, italics added, p. 75
[486] KI, pp. 243-244, p. 255; italics added.
[487] In this passage Bahá'u'lláh directly states that he refers to
"the "Biháru'l-Anvár," the 'Aválim," and the
"Yanbú" of Sádiq, son of Muhammad"
[488] Bahá'u'lláh's statement is excerpted from his
Kitáb-i-Íqán which was written c. 1862, one year prior to
Bahá'u'lláh's claim of "He Whom God shall manifest" which could
explain why he here does not directly claim this title
[489] Bahá'u'lláh qtd in WOB, p. 168, italics added
[490] TA, p. 42, italics added; SWA, p. 68, italics added.
[491] SWA p. 62.
[492] SWA p. 56, italics added.
[493] FWU, p. 10, italics added.
[494] For a more detailed explanation of Material and Divine
Civilization see e.g., SDC, PUP, and SAQ, p. 300.
[495] PUP, pp. 37-38, italics added; PUP, p. 431.
[496] SWA, p. 31.
[497] 'Abdu'l-Bahá qtd in WOB, p. 205, italics added.
[498] LGTANZ, p. 41, italics added; UD, p. 448.
[499] CF, p. 5, p. 69; GPB, p. 3.
[500] WOB, p. 60, clarification and italics added.
[501] CF, p. 82, clarification added.
[502] LG, p. 487.
[503] LG, pp. 487-488.
[504] WOB, p. 202, italics added.
[505] GPB, pp. 93-94.
[506] WOB, p. 163, italics added; GPB, pp. 93-94.
[507] SAQ, pp. 160-161.
[508] DG, pp. 61-62, italics added.
[509] UD, p. 448.
[510] WOB, p. 166, italics added.
Chapter 7
VII. Summary and Conclusions
Bahá'í-apocalypticism was operationalized as a system of
dimensions of revelations (apocalyptic ideas) where the concept of progressive
revelation is seen as a central concept. Bahá'í-apocalypticism
included various intimately related areas or dimensions such as, theology,
cosmology, and prophetology. In reviewing the area of
Bahá'í-theology it was found that God was the source of
revelation (S). However, this source was partially concealed to human knowledge
(the essence of God), and yet God had created human beings in order to be known
and worshipped. This paradox was solved in the area of
Bahá'í-cosmology where a dynamic cosmos was seen as a reflection
of the attributes of God. The cosmos was in this sense regarded as the
instrument of revelation (I). However, the cosmos was also conceived as
structured in a spiritual hierarchy with various levels where each kingdom
could receive and manifest, according to capacity, the attributes of God. More
importantly for the concept of progressive revelation, it was evident in the
area of Bahá'í-cosmology that progress was a recurrent and
important key term and concept. The evolutionary character of the cosmos was
further summarized as: successive, sequential, gradual, teleological, and
organic.
Subsequently, it was seen that Bahá'í-cosmology could be divided
into two main categories, or means of revelation (M), universal revelation, and
specific revelation. It was the latter which was of special interest since the
concept of progressive revelation could be classified under this category. One
special feature of specific revelation was the concept of the Manifestation of
God. This concept was discussed in the area of
Bahá'í-prophetology where the nature of the Manifestation of God
was investigated, and it was found to be a mediator (M) between God and human
beings. Two major stations, or dimensions, where contrasted: the esoteric
dimension (the station of essential unity) and the exoteric dimension (the
station of distinction). Bahá'í-apocalypticism could be seen as
being primarily structured in a vertical axis where the higher levels of this
axis are increasingly more esoteric and the lower gradually more exoteric and
horizontal (see Appendix I). These dimensions where in turn used as the
underlying framework for the next research-question: the concept of progressive
revelation.
The concept of progressive revelation was first directly confirmed as a central
concept of the Bahá'í-religion. It was later indirectly studied
from two major levels: 1) texts of identification, and 2) texts of elaboration.
The former studied the esoteric dimensions of the Manifestations of God whereas
the latter focused on the exoteric dimensions, e.g.: the rise and fall of a
religion; the succession and continuity of religions; differences between the
Manifestations of God and the Concept of Progress; and the Cyclical scheme. It
was found that religions in general are viewed in a cyclical, evolutionary, and
progressive fashion, both on the level of the individual religion as well as
between religions. This cyclical scheme was seen in even greater periods such
as the Prophetic and Bahá'í Cycles. It was in these contexts were
the issues of finality in revelation and the "Seal of the Prophets" were
discussed. It was found that these issues were approached from various
perspectives, both esoterically and exoterically, and were the latter
perspective was dominating. The two major cycles, the Prophetic Cycle and the
Bahá'í Cycle, were later compared and it was found that the
concept of progress was applicable here as well. The study of the concept of
progressive revelation was seen to be oriented in the more horizontal and
exoteric dimension, since it was predominately found within the spatial,
temporal, and causal realms. Moreover, the various religions were seen as
intimately and fundamentally correlated, both in the vertical and esoterical
dimensions as well as in the horizontal and exoterical dimensions (See Appendix
I and II). The most important point, however, was that the concept of progress
could be found on all levels (except theology), from cosmology to prophetology,
but especially in the various areas of texts of elaboration (exoteric
dimension).
From the systematic and structural analysis made above and the stated summary,
it can be concluded that this study has shown that:
- Bahá'í-apocalypticism in general has a
multidimensional structure, e.g., hierarchical, horizontal, vertical,
exoterical, and esoterical. (this hypothesis was supported on p. 67)
- Issues like the "Seal of the Prophets" and finality of revelation
are, according to the Bahá'í-authors, ultimately a matter of
viewpoint and interpretation (esoteric/exoteric). Thus, the
Bahá'í-authors upholds the that the "Seal of the Prophets" and
the finality of revelation are valid from one specific point of view, but they
prefer to interpret these issues within the concept of progressive revelation,
especially within the cyclical scheme. (this hypothesis was supported on p.
125)
- Progressive revelation is a central concept, principle, and theme,
in the Bahá'í religion. It consists both of an esoteric (texts
of identification) and an exoteric dimension (texts of elaboration). (this
hypothesis was supported on p. 133)
- Progressive revelation is an evolutionary concept of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism and which interprets various revelations
(religions) as essentially interconnected, cyclical, and progressive. (this
hypothesis was supported on p. 133)
Consequently, all four hypotheses have been supported in this thesis.
Chapter 8
VIII. Discussion
As can be seen in the Abbreviations of Sources and Bibliography, this study
has been based on a variety of Bahá'í-texts (English originals or
translations) from three principal Bahá'í-authors whose lives
together span 140 years (1817-1957), and whose collected works have addressed a
multitude of different audiences in three different languages (Arabic, Persian,
English). It should also be noted that the three authors also wrote (or spoke)
in quite different styles and covered a wide variety of subjects. Yet, although
the Bahá'í-texts presented in this thesis have been treated as
"literary" sources, some of the material has a purely oral origin. This is
especially applicable to some of 'Abdu'l-Bahá's sources which are based
upon either a series of lectures (e.g., Paris Talks and Promulgation of
Universal Peace), or interviews (e.g. Some Answered Questions). Other texts by
'Abdu'l-Bahá were originally written to specific addressees and consists
thus of either a single letter (e.g., Tablet to August Forel) or a compilation
of letters (e.g. Makátíb-i 'Abdu'l-Bahá). Similarly, some
principal texts by Bahá'u'lláh were originally based upon
correspondence with single individuals (e.g.,
Kitáb-i-Íqán), or sent as a proclamation to significant
individuals (e.g., The Proclamation of Bahá'u'lláh to the
kings and leaders of the world). Further, it was noted that Shoghi Effendi only
wrote one book (God Passes By) and most his works are actually based upon
compilations of letters through his correspondence with the international
Bahá'í-community (e.g., World Order of Bahá'u'lláh,
Promised Day is Come, and Messages to the Bahá'í World). Yet, as
the only authorized translator and interpreter of the writings of the
Báb, Bahá'u'lláh, and 'Abdu'l-Bahá, in his time,
Shoghi Effendi's contribution and influence on some highly important
Bahá'í-texts (e.g., Gleanings from the Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh and The Hidden Words) should not be underestimated.
With these issues in mind, it is perhaps understandable that the
Bahá'í-authors not always present
Bahá'í-apocalypticism in a very systematic and structured
fashion, but that various subjects are fairly scattered throughout the
Bahá'í-texts. The present study has therefore addressed the need
to first systematize, structure, and analyze
Bahá'í-apocalypticism, whereas the next step will be to view this
field in its religious/philosophical and historical contexts.
Furthermore, although the presented material only represents a small fraction
of the total amount of original Arabic and Persian Bahá'í-texts,
it is still a representative cross-section of the available English sources. It
was also stated that one reason for studying the English sources was that they
were used as the basis for translations into most languages. Thus, this study
has in some instances relied on a number of secondary sources, and this can be
seen as a major limitation of this thesis. It is therefore recommended that
future research on Bahá'í-apocalypticism directly compares and
checks the English translations with the relevant primary Arabic and Persian
sources.
Since this study was primarily a structural and ahistorical approach to
Bahá'í-apocalypticism, it can be evaluated as a "self-contained"
enterprise and which ignored the historical parameters. As such, it may
represent an "emic" (internal/religious) perspective of religion
(apocalypticism), i.e., it presented the Bahá'í-authors view of
their own revelation (religion) in connection with other revelations
(religions). Thus, this "emic" perspective may also be labeled as "religious"
or "sacred history." This view can in turn be contrasted with the "ethical"
(external/scientific) perspective of apocalypticism (religion) which embodies
historical, exegetical, anthropological, social etc. perspectives. However,
although this study primarily has presented an "emic" perspective of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism, it was based upon a scientific approach in
that it employed an exegetical method (structural criticism) which
systematically analyzed various subjects of
Bahá'í-apocalypticism. The next step of this research (the Ph.D.
dissertation) will further complement, improve, and increase, the "ethic"
perspective in that it will systematically include the religious/philosophical
and historical contexts.
Appendix I
Bahá'í Apocalypticism The Vertical
Axis
Key terms: Areas: Section:
Hidden
Transcendental essence unknowable
Concealed
--------------------------------------- God ----------------------------------
1. Theology
Manifest attributes, names knowable
Immanent (according to capacity)
Revealed
Dynamic Creation/Cosmos
Hierarchical (levels, stages) (See Table 2)
Evolutionary
Progressive
Transference
Teleological 2. Cosmology
Capacity Macro (all worlds) Micro (human world)
Gradual
Organic
Omnipresent Universal Confined Specific 3. Universal &
Perpetual Revelation Temporal Revelation Specific
Capacity Receptivity Revelation Gradual
4. Prophetology
Education Laws of Nature Education Manifestations of God
(See Tables 3 & 4)
Nature Capacity Humanity
Receptivity
Circumstances
Material Spiritual
Progressive Revelation the Horizontal Axis
Chapter VII
Progressive Temporal, Spatial, Causal
Successive
Continuous
Gradual
Evolutionary
Capacity
Receptivity
Cyclical (See Appendix II)
Organic (metaphors and models)
Appendix II
Progressive Revelation The Horizontal Axis
A. The rise and fall of a religion
--------
(solar-model) dawn - noon - sunset night
(seasonal-model) spring summer fall winter
B. The succession and continuity of religions
--------
spring summer fall winter-spring
summer fall -winter-spring summer fall
winter
Season I Season II Season III
Religion I Religion II Religion III
C. Differences between the Manifestations of God and the Concept of Progress
--------
Religion I Religion II Religion III
D. The cyclical scheme[511]
------
6000 years 1000 years 500 000 years
Adamic Cycle, Bahá'í Dispensation Bahá'í Cycle,
Bahá'í Era, Cycle of Fulfilment
Prophetic Cycle "The Millennium" The Golden Age
Appendix III
Progress or decline?
Throughout this thesis the themes of progress and decline have occurred in
various contexts, especially in the subsection on "The rise and fall of a
religion." However, the vigilant reader may have noticed that in some contexts
the present age is described as being in a state of decline and yet in the
section on "The Bahá'í Cycle and the concept of progress" the
present age is described as being an age of progress and evolution, and that
humanity is coming of age or reaching a stage of maturity. Furthermore, in the
subsection on Prophetology, the Manifestations of God where described as divine
physicians whose missions were to heal the ailments of the world, and elsewhere
it was stated that they are the cause of progress in the world. It was also in
this context that Bahá'u'lláh described the world's sickness as
"approaching the stage of utter hopelessness."[512] Moreover, in another context
Bahá'u'lláh writes that:
The world's equilibrium hath been upset through
the vibrating influence of this most great, this new World Order. Mankind's
ordered life hath been revolutionized through the agency of this unique, this
wondrous System--the like of which mortal eyes have never witnessed.[513]
Statements like these appear to be quite contrary to the concept of progress
and in the excerpt above it seems that Bahá'u'lláh's "new World
Order" or "System" rather is the cause for the disturbance of the "world's
equilibrium." Likewise, it was also earlier shown that although the arrival of
the Manifestations of God is seen not only a season of "joy, of happiness," but
as "the day of judgment, the time of turmoil and distress." Yet,
Bahá'u'lláh also attributes the "perversity of the people of this
age" to the "denial and opposition" of the people to the subsequent
Manifestations of God.[514] This line of
reasoning is similar to Shoghi Effendi's discussion on the causes of the
decline of religion where there seem to be a mutual interconnectedness between
the revelatory and human dimensions.
In contrast to Bahá'u'lláh's statement that the world's "sickness
is approaching the stage of utter hopelessness" is the statement below:
The whole earth is now in a state of pregnancy.
The day is approaching when it will have yielded its noblest fruits, when from
it will have sprung forth the loftiest trees, the most enchanting blossoms, the
most heavenly blessings. Immeasurably exalted is the breeze that wafteth from
the garment of thy Lord, the Glorified! For lo, it hath breathed its fragrance
and made all things new![515]
Earlier it was seen that humanity as a whole was approaching a stage of
maturity and here, along with various organic metaphors, a birth-metaphor is
employed. The "whole earth" is here, rather than seen in a state of sickness,
being paralleled to "a state of pregnancy" which does suggest a rather radical
period of transition to something new. Shoghi Effendi includes the above cited
passage in a chapter entitled "Pangs of Death and Birth" and, in conjunction
with it, he says that the "darkest hour that must precede the dawn of the
Golden Age of our Faith has not yet struck."[516] Shoghi Effendi further comments
upon
the theme of decline and progress as follows:
Deep as is the gloom that already encircles the
world, the afflictive ordeals which that world is to suffer are still in
preparation, nor can their blackness be as yet imagined. We stand on the
threshold of an age whose convulsions proclaim alike the death-pangs of the old
order and the birth-pangs of the new. Through the generating influence of the
Faith announced by Bahá'u'lláh this New World Order may be said to have been
conceived. We can, at the present moment, experience its stirrings in the womb
of a travailing age--an age waiting for the appointed hour at which it can cast
its burden and yield its fairest fruit.[517]
The present age is seen was being on the "threshold" between two world orders
the "death-pangs of the old order" ("darkest hour") and the
"birth-pangs of the new" ("dawn of the Golden Age"). A similar expression is
found in the writings of Bahá'u'lláh where he says: "Soon will
the present-day order be rolled up, and a new one spread out in its stead."[518]
These and earlier passages by the
Bahá'í-authors indicate that the world at present is in a major
phase-transition between two major cycles, and Shoghi Effendi also refers to
this present age as the "Age of Transition."[519] This age is furthermore
represented
not only by two opposing world-orders, but also two major concurring processes:
A twofold process, however, can be
distinguished, each tending, in its own way and with an accelerated momentum,
to bring to a climax the forces that are transforming the face of our planet.
The first is essentially an integrating process, while the second is
fundamentally disruptive. The former, as it steadily evolves, unfolds a System
which may well serve as a pattern for that world polity towards which a
strangely-disordered world is continually advancing; while the latter, as its
disintegrating influence deepens, tends to tear down, with increasing violence,
the antiquated barriers that seek to block humanity's progress towards its
destined goal. The constructive process stands associated with the nascent
Faith of Bahá'u'lláh, and is the harbinger of the New World Order that Faith
must erelong establish. The destructive forces that characterize the other
should be identified with a civilization that has refused to answer to the
expectation of a new age, and is consequently falling into chaos and decline.[520]
In this passage the above mentioned themes cohere and addresses the apparently
contradictory themes of decline and progress. It is interesting to note that
both processes are being described as accelerating and that they are reaching a
"climax" which will be "transforming the face of our planet." The first process
is described as "integrating" and "constructive" whereas the latter is depicted
as "disruptive" and "disintegrating." It is interesting to note that the former
"steadily evolves," "unfolds" and is related to a "continually advancing"
world. These themes, as have been shown, are strongly indicative of a process
of progressive revelation. Furthermore, this former process is also connected
with the "nascent Faith of Bahá'u'lláh" and the "New World
Order." The second process, although portrayed as "destructive," is seen in a
positive light in that it tears down the "antiquated barriers that seek to
block humanity's progress towards its destined goal." This barrier is hence
related to a civilization which has "refused to answer to the expectation of a
new age." This last sentence could refer to both: 1) the revelation of
Bahá'u'lláh in general, and/or 2) Bahá'u'lláh's
letters sent to various religious and political leaders in the 19th century.[521]
Consequently, the
Bahá'í-authors seem to imply that although a religion or a
religious cycle inevitably declines or is completed, peoples' "denial and
opposition" or "refusal" of the Manifestations of God, is in some sense, the
cause that the world is "falling into chaos and decline."
To conclude, although the general tendency of a single religion, the succession
of religions, or the religious cycles is in general progressive, the concept of
decline is also an integral part of this process, especially at the end of a
religious or prophetic cycle. Thus, decline is a necessary part of the concept
of progressive revelation, but humanity is also to some extent responsible for
both the process of progress as well as the process of decline.
Abbreviations of Sources
ADJ=Advent of Divine Justice (Shoghi Effendi)
BP=Bahá'í Prayers (Bahá'u'lláh,
'Abdu'l-Bahá)
CF=Citadel of Faith (Shoghi Effendi)
DG=Directives from the Guardian (Shoghi Effendi)
DP=Divine Philosophy ('Abdu'l-Bahá)
FV=Four Valleys (Bahá'u'lláh)
GJ=Garden of Justice (Bahá'u'lláh)
GPB=God Passes By (Shoghi Effendi)
GWB=Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh
(Bahá'u'lláh)
HW=Hidden Words (Bahá'u'lláh)
KA=Kitáb-i-Aqdas (Bahá'u'lláh)
KI=Kitáb-i-Íqán (Bahá'u'lláh)
LG=Lights of Guidance (Bahá'u'lláh, 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Shoghi
Effendi)
LGTANZ=Letters from the Guardian to Australia and New Zealand (Shoghi
Effendi)
MA=Messages to America (Shoghi Effendi)
MBW=Messages to the Bahá'í World (Shoghi Effendi)
PDC= Promised Day is Come (Shoghi Effendi)
PM=Prayers and Meditations (Bahá'u'lláh)
POB=The Proclamation of Bahá'u'lláh
(Bahá'u'lláh)
PT=Paris Talks ('Abdu'l-Bahá)
PUP= Promulgation of Universal Peace ('Abdu'l-Bahá)
SAQ= Some Answered Questions ('Abdu'l-Bahá)
SDC=The Secret of Divine Civilization ('Abdu'l-Bahá)
SV=Seven Valleys (Bahá'u'lláh)
SWA=Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahá
('Abdu'l-Bahá)
TAB=Tablets of 'Abdu'l-Bahá ('Abdu'l-Bahá)
TAF=Tablet to August Forel ('Abdu'l-Bahá)
TB=Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh (Bahá'u'lláh)
TM=Tablet of the Manifestation (Bahá'u'lláh)
UD=Unfolding Destiny (Shoghi Effendi)
WB=Writings of Bahá'u'lláh
(Bahá'u'lláh)
WOB=The World Order of Bahá'u'lláh (Shoghi
Effendi)
Bibliography
'Abdu'l-Bahá (1330 AH). Makátíb-i
'Abdu'l-Bahá (Collected Letters), vol. II. Kurdistán Scientific
Press, Cairo.
(1918). Abdul Baha on Divine Philosophy. [comp.
Isabel Fraser Chamberlain]. The Tudor Press, Boston.
(1930-40). Tablets of Abdul Baha Abbas. [comp.
A. R. Windust]. Bahá'í Publishing Committee, NY.
(1957). The Secret of Divine Civilization.
[trans. Marzieh Gail]. Bahá'í Publishing Trust, Wilmette, Ill.
(1978). Tablet to August Forel. George Ronald,
Oxford.
(1979). Paris Talks: Addresses Given by
'Abdu'l-Bahá in Paris in 1911-12. 11th ed. Bahá'í
Publishing Trust, London.
(1980). The Tablet of the Divine Plan.
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, Wilmette, Ill.
(1980). A Traveler's Narrative. [originally
published in 1891 by Cambridge University Press under the misleading authorship
of E.G., Browne who translated and wrote an introduction to the work]. Bahá'í
Publishing Trust, Wilmette, Ill.
(1981). Some Answered Questions. [trans. Laura
Clifford-Barney]. 3rd ed. Bahá'í Publishing Trust, Wilmette,
Ill.
(1982). The Promulgation of Universal Peace.
Talks delivered by 'Abdu'l-Bahá during His visit to the United States
and Canada in 1912. [comp. Howard MacNutt]. 2nd ed. Bahá'í
Publishing Trust, Wilmette, Ill.
(1982). Selections from the Writings of
'Abdu'l-Bahá. [comp. Research Dept. of the Universal House of Justice;
trans. by a Committee at the Bahá'í World Centre and Marzieh
Gail]. Bahá'í World Centre, Haifa.
Adamson, Hugh (1974). The Concept of Revelation as Found in Islam and
Bahá'í. (unpublished M. A. thesis).
Afnan, M. and Hatcher, W.S. (1985). Western Islamic Scholarship and
Bahá'í Origins. Religion 15, 29-51.
Al-Jurjání, 'Ali (1306/1888). At-Ta'r'fát. Al-Khayriyyah
Press, Cairo.
Amanat, Abbas (1989). Resurrection and Renewal: The Making of the Babi Movement
in Iran 1844-1850. Cornell University Press, London.
Arberry, A.J. (1957). Revelation and Reason in Islam. London.
Arjomand, S.A. (1984). The Shadow of God and the Hidden Imam: Religion,
Political Order, and Societal Change in Shi'ite Iran from the Beginning to
1890. University of Chicago, Chicago.
Augustine, Saint (1994). The City of God. [trans. Marcus Dods]. Modern
Library.
Báb (1978). Selections from the Writings of the Báb. [comp.
Research Dept. of the Universal House of Justice and trans. by Habib
Taherzadeh]. Bahá'í World Centre, Haifa.
Bahá'í Nytt (Nov. 1993). Published by Nationella Andliga
Rådet för Sveriges Bahá'íer, Stockholm.
Bahá'í Prayers (1991). A Selection of Prayers Revealed by
Bahá'u'lláh, the Báb, and 'Abdu'l-Bahá. Bahá'í
Publishing Trust, Wilmette, Illinois.
Bahá'u'lláh (1972). The Proclamation of
Bahá'u'lláh to the kings and leaders of the world.
Bahá'í World Centre, Haifa.
(1972-73). Àthár-i qalam-i
a'lá. vol. III. Bahá'í Publishing Trust, Teheran.
(1978). Prayers and Mediations by
Bahá'u'lláh. Bahá'í Publishing Trust,
London.
(1978). Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh
Revealed After the Kitáb-i-Aqdas. [comp. Research Dept. of the
Universal House of Justice. trans. Habib Taherzadeh]. Bahá'í
World Centre, Haifa.
(1983). Gleanings from the Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh. [trans. from the original Persian and Arabic
by Shoghi Effendi]. Bahá'í Publishing Trust, Wilmette, Ill.
(1983). The Hidden Words of
Bahá'u'lláh (Kalimát-i-Makhnúnih). [trans. from the
original Persian and Arabic by Shoghi Effendi]
(1983). The Kitáb-i-Íqán
The Book of Certitude. Bahá'í Publishing Trust, Wilmette, Ill.
(1984). The Seven Valleys and the Four Valleys.
[trans. Ali Kuli Khan and Marzie Gail]. Bahá'í Publishing Trust, Wilmette,
Ill.
(1986). Writings of
Bahá'u'lláh a compilation.
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, New Delhi.
(1992). The Kitáb-i-Aqdas The
Most Holy Book. Bahá'í World Centre, Haifa.
. Jawarhir'ul-Asrar (Gems of the Mysteries).
[trans. Juan Cole, University of Michigan]. (unpublished and undated e-mail
document).
. Garden of Justice. [trans. Juan Cole,
University of Michigan]. (unpublished and undated e-mail document).
. Tablet of the Manifestation (Lawh-i
zuhúr). [trans. Juan Cole, University of Michigan]. (unpublished and
undated e-mail document).
Baillie, John (1950). The Belief in Progress. London.
Balyuzi, H.M. (1963). Bahá'u'lláh. George Ronald, Oxford.
(1970). Edward Granville Browne and the
Bahá'í Faith. George Ronald, London.
(1991). Bahá'u'lláh
King of Glory. 2nd ed. George Ronald, Oxford.
Bayat, Mangol (1982). Mysticism and Dissent: Socioreligious Thought in Qajar
Iran. Syracuse University Press, Syracuse.
Bible, The Holy (1978). New International Version. Zondervan Bible Publishers,
Grand Rapids, Michigan.
Boyce, Mary (1987). Zoroastrianism: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices.
Routledge & Kegan Paul, London.
Browne, E.G. (1891). A Traveller's Narrative Written to Illustrate the Episode
of the Báb. [its actual author is 'Abdu'l-Bahá, but the work was
translated and introduced by E.G., Browne]. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
(1892). "Babism" in Religious Systems of the
World, a Contribution to the Study of Comparative Religion. Edited by W.
Sheowring and C.W. Thies. Swan Sonneschein and Co., London.
(1918). Materials for the Study of the
Bábí Religion Compiled by E.G., Browne. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
(1924). A Literary History of Persia. Vol.
IV, 1500-1924. Cambridge.
Brunner, Emil (1947). Revelation and Reason. [trans. Olive Wyon]. SCM,
London.
Buck, Christopher (1986). A Unique Eschatological Interface:
Bahá'u'lláh and Cross-Cultural Messianism. Studies in
Bábí and Bahá'í History, vol. 3., Kalimát
Press, LA.
Bury, J.B. (1987) The Idea of Progress: An inquiry into its origin and growth.
[originally published 1920]. Dover Publications, Inc., NY.
Caird, Edward (1907). The Evolution of Religion. [originally published in 1902]
4th ed. Glasgow.
Cole, J.R. (1982). The Concept of Manifestation in the Bahá'í
Writings. Bahá'í Studies, Vol. 9.
(1984). Bahá'u'lláh and the
Naqshbandí Sufis in Iraq, 1854-1856. Studies in Bábí and
Bahá'í History, vol. 2., Kalimát Press, LA.
(1993). "I am all the Prophets": The Poetics of
Pluralism in Bahá'í Texts. Poetics Today 14:3.
Collins, W.P. (1990). Bibliography of English-Language Works on the
Bábí and Bahá'í Faiths 1844-1985. George Ronald,
Oxford.
Darwin, Charles (1992). The Origin of Species. [originally published 1859].
Amereon Ltd.
Duchesne-Guillemin, Jaques (1952). The Hymns of Zarathustra. Being a
Translation of the Gáthás together with Introduction and
Commentary. [trans. from the French by Mrs. M. Henning]. John Murray,
London.
Dulles, Avery (1994). Models of Revelation. Orbis Books, Maryknoll, NY.
Eliade, Mircea (Ed.) (1987). Encyclopedia of Religion. Macmillan Publ. Co.,
NY.
Encyclopedia Judaica. Keter Publishing House, Jerusalem, Israel. (no date
given)
Esslemont, J.E. (1980). Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era.
[originally published in 1923]. Bahá'í Publishing Trust, Wilmette, Ill.
Fazel, Seena (1994). Is the Bahá'í Faith a World Religion? The
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 6.1.
Fazel, S. and Fananapazir, K. (1993). A Bahá'í Approach to the
Claim of Finality in Islam. The Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 5.3.
Gibb, H.A.R. (1960). Encyclopaedia of Islám. Luzac & Co., London.
Gibbon, Edward (1985). The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. [originally
published between 1776-1788]. Penguin Books Ltd, Harmondsworth.
Glassé, Cyril (1989). The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. Harper &
Row, Publishing Inc., San Francisco.
Hatcher, W.S. and Martin, J.D. (1989). The Bahá'í Faith
the emerging global religion. Harper & Row, Publishers, San
Francisco.
Hayes, J.H. & Holladay, C.R. (1987). Biblical Exegesis A
Beginner's Handbook. 2nd ed. SCM Press, Ltd, London.
Hedin, S. (1887). Genom Persien, Mesopotamien och Kaukasien. Albert Bonniers
Förlag, Stockholm.
Hegel, G.W.F. (1990). A Machine-Readable Version of the Phenomenology of Mind.
[the original German title Phenomenologie des Geistes was originally published
in 1807]. Georgetown Univ. Press.
Hellholm, David (Ed.) (1983). Apocalypticism in the Mediterranean World and the
Near East: Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Apocalypticism
Uppsala, August 12-17, 1979. J. C. B. Mohr, Tübingen.
Hick, John (1989). An Interpretation of Religion. Macmillan, London.
Holley, Horace (1923). Baha'í Scriptures. Brentano, NY.
Hopper, D.H. (1991). Technology, Theology, and the Idea of Progress. John Knox
Press, Louiseville, Kentucky.
Hopson, E.A. (1982). Creation and Evolution: A Bahá'í
Perspective. Newscope Productions, NY.
Hornby, Helen (1983). Lights of Guidance: A Bahá'í Reference
File. Bahá'í Publishing Trust, New Delhi.
Kumar, Krishan (1978). Prophecy and Progress: The Sociology of Industrial and
Post- Industrial Society. Penguin Books Ltd, Harmondsworth.
Lawson, B.T. (1987). The Qur'án Commentary of the Báb. Ph.D.
diss., McGill University.
Loehle, Craig (1989-1990). On Human Origins: A Bahá'í
perspective. The Journal of Bahá'í Studies, vol. 2, 4.
MacEoin, D.M. (1979). From Shaykhism to Babism: A Study in Charismatic Renewal
in Shí'í Islam. Ph.D. diss., Cambridge University.
May, Dann (1989). A Preliminary Survey of Hermeneutical Principles Found within
the Bahá'í Writings. The Journal of Bahá'í Studies,
vol. 1, 3.
Melzer, A.M., Weinberger, J. & Zinman, M. R. (Eds.) (1995). History and the
Idea of Progress. Cornell University Press, Ithaca.
Momen, Moojan (1981). The Bábí and
Bahá'í-religions, 1844-1944: Some Contemporary Western Accounts.
George Ronald, Oxford.
(1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The
History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. George Ronald, Oxford.
(Ed.) (1987). Selections from the Writings of
E.G. Browne on the Bábí and Bahá'í-religions.
George Ronald, Oxford.
(1988). Relativism: A Basis for
Bahá'í Metaphysics. Studies in the Bábí &
Bahá'í-religions, vol. 5. Kalimát Press, LA.
Momen, Wendy (Ed.) (1991). A Basic Bahá'í Dictionary. George
Ronald, Oxford.
Murty, K.S. (1959). Revelation and Reason in Advaita Vedánta.
Livingston, N.J.
Nabíl-i-A'zam (Muhammad-i-Zarandí) (1953). The Dawn-Breakers,
Nabíl's Narrative of the Early Days of the Bahá'í
Revelation. [trans. from the original Persian and edited by Shoghi Effendi].
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, London.
Nicolas, A.L.M. (1905). Le Béyan arabe: Le Livre sacré de
Bábysme. (trans.) Paris.
(1911-1914). Le Béyan persan.
(trans.) 4 vols. Paris.
Nisbet, Robert (1994). History of the Idea of Progress. Transaction Publishers,
London.
Plotinus (1991). The Enneads. [Ed. Dillon, J. ] Penguin, U.S.A.
Olsson, Tord (1983). The Apocalyptic Activity. The Case of Jámásp
Námag. In Hellholm, David (Ed.). Apocalypticism in the Mediterranean
World and the Near East. J. C. B. Mohr, Tübingen.
Patterson, R.F. (1991). New Webster's Dictionary. P. S. I. & Associates,
Florida.
Qur'án, The (1980). An English Translation of the Meaning of Quran.
[checked and revised by Mahmud Y. Zayid]. Dar Al-Choura, Beirut, Lebanon.
Rabbani, Ruhhiyyih (1969). The Priceless Pearl. Bahá'í Publishing
Trust, London.
Rafati, Vahíd (1979). The Development of Shaykhí Thought in
Shí'í Islam. UCLA. (unpublished Ph.D. diss.).
Sachedina, A.A. (1981). Islamic Messianism: The Idea of Mahdí in Twelver
Shí'ism. SUNY Press, NY.
Savi, Julio (1989). The Eternal Quest for God. George Ronald, Oxford.
Schaefer, Udo (1988). The Bahá'í faith sect or
religion? Bahá'í Studies, vol. 16.
Schuon, Frithjof (1984). The Transcendent Unity of Religions. Quest, Wheaton,
Ill..
Sharpe, E.J. (1986). Comparative Religion: A History. Duckworth, London.
Shoghi Effendi (1947). Messages to America. Bahá'í Publishing
Trust, Wilmette, Ill.
(1971). Letters from the Guardian to Australia
and New Zealand, 1923- 1957. N. S. W., Australia.
(1971). Messages to the Bahá'í
World: 1950-1957. Bahá'í Publishing Trust, Wilmette, Ill.
(1973). Directives from the Guardian. [comp.
Gertrude Garrida]. Publishing Trust, New Delhi.
(1974). God Passes By. [originally published in
1944]. Bahá'í Publishing Trust, Wilmette, Ill.
(1980). Citadel of Faith: Messages to America
1947-1957. Bahá'í Publishing Trust, Wilmette, Ill.
(1980). The Promised Day Is Come.
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, Wilmette, Ill.
(1981). The Unfolding Destiny of the British
Bahá'í Community. Bahá'í Publishing Trust,
London.
(1990). The Advent of Divine Justice.
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, Wilmette, Ill.
(1991). The World Order of
Bahá'u'lláh selected letters.
Bahá'í Publishing Trust, Wilmette, Ill.
Skeat, W.W. (1984). A Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language.
Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Smart, Ninian (1971). The Religious Experience of Mankind. Collins, Glasgow.
Smith, Peter (1987). The Babi and Bahá'í Religions: From messianic Shi'ism to a
world religion. George Ronald, Cambridge University Press.
Sonne der Warheit, No. 1, March 1921.
Sours, Michael (1992). Immanence and Transcendence in Divine Scripture. The
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, vol. 5, 2.
Stockman, Robert. (1993). Progressive Revelation. (unpublished manuscript for
The Bahá'í Encyclopedia).
Söderblom, Nathan (1930). Uppenbarelsereligion. Bokförlaget Prisma,
Stockholm.
Taherzadeh, Adib (1987). The Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh
(vol's. 1-4). George Ronald, Oxford.
Towfigh, Nicola (1989). Schöpfung und Offenbarung aus der Sicht der
Bahá'í-Religion anhand ausgewählter Texte. George Olms
Verlag, Hildesheim.
Vámbéry, Hermann (1869). Resa i Persien. [originally published
1867]. J. L. Törnqvists Förlag, Landskrona.
Volker, C.A. (1989-90). Translating the Bahá'í Writings. The
Journal of Bahá'í Studies, vol. 2, 3.
Ward, Keith (1994). Religion and Revelation: A Theology of Revelation in the
World's Religions. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Notes:
[511] These cycles should not be equated with the seasonal cycles
above since the seasonal-models exists within the Prophetic and
Bahá'í Cycles. These cycles rather portrays their relative
duration.
[512] GWB, pp. 40-41, pp. 118-119; WOB, p. 32; SWA p. 244.
[513] GWB, p. 136.
[514] KI, p. 13.
[515] Bahá'u'lláh qtd in WOB, p. 169.
[516] WOB, p. 169.
[517] WOB, p. 169, italics added.
[518] GWB, p. 7.
[519] WOB, p. 171.
[520] WOB, p. 170, italics added; PDC, p. 17.
[521] See POB.
|